Macroinvertebrate conservation in river ecosystems: Challenges, restoration strategies, and integrated management approaches

In-stream habitat restoration

In-stream habitat restoration is vital for river restoration and management, targeting the improvement of ecological function, health, and resilience in river systems by addressing the root causes of degradation (Muotka et al. 2002). Enhancing habitat quality and heterogeneity through in-stream restoration yields numerous benefits for macroinvertebrates, including increased niche availability, better water quality, and enhanced connectivity (Miller et al. 2010). The following sections explore various in-stream habitat restoration techniques, such as the reintroduction of natural substrates, the addition of large woody debris, bank stabilization, and re-vegetation (Table 2).

Restoring degraded river habitats and supporting macroinvertebrate communities can be achieved by reintroducing natural substrates like gravel, cobble, and boulders. These materials offer a complex, three-dimensional structure, providing diverse microhabitats for macroinvertebrates and facilitating feeding, reproduction, and predator refuge (Nilsson et al. 2015). Natural substrate reintroduction can also enhance water quality through the promotion of sediment deposition and biogeochemical processes, such as nutrient cycling and the breakdown of organic matter (Davis et al. 2003). Furthermore, natural substrates can strengthen the stability and resilience of river systems by reducing erosion and dissipating flow energy (Wohl & Merritt 2001). Careful consideration of substrate size, composition, and placement is required to ensure long-term success and ecological benefits.

In-stream habitat restoration can also be achieved by adding large woody debris (LWD) to river systems, benefiting macroinvertebrate communities (Larson et al. 2001). LWD, including fallen trees, branches, and root wads, creates complex habitat structures, enhancing diversity and heterogeneity. This complexity offers shelter, foraging opportunities, and breeding sites for various macroinvertebrates. Moreover, LWD can improve river hydrology by reducing flow velocity, promoting sediment deposition, and creating diverse flow conditions like pools and riffles that support macroinvertebrate assemblages (Gippel 1995). LWD plays a vital role in nutrient cycling, serving as a substrate for microbial and fungal colonization and aiding organic matter decomposition. Strategic planning, proper placement, and regular monitoring are essential for the long-term ecological benefits and minimal adverse impacts of LWD (Zhou et al. 2007).

Bank stabilization and re-vegetation are critical in-stream habitat restoration components, mitigating erosion, sedimentation, and habitat degradation while fostering macroinvertebrate population recovery (Schiff et al. 2011; Swinson et al. 2015). Bioengineering techniques, such as live staking, brush layering, and vegetated geogrids, can stabilize riverbanks and enhance habitat complexity. These methods employ live plant materials and biodegradable structures to reinforce banks, promoting native vegetation growth and long-term stability through root system establishment.

Riverbank re-vegetation with native plants not only aids bank stabilization but also improves the quality of macroinvertebrate habitat (Houston & Duivenvoorden 2002). Riparian vegetation acts as a source of organic matter, fueling the riverine food web and supporting macroinvertebrates. Additionally, it provides shade, moderates water temperatures, and maintains suitable thermal conditions for various macroinvertebrate species. Well-vegetated riverbanks can also serve as buffer zones: filtering run-off and reducing pollutant and excess nutrient inputs into rivers, improving water quality, and providing a healthier macroinvertebrate environment (Burt et al. 1999; Duan et al. 2021).

Flow regime restoration

Flow regime restoration is vital for river restoration and management, aiming to enhance ecological health, functioning, and resilience by restoring natural flow patterns and hydrological processes disrupted by human activities (Palmer & Ruhi 2019). Restoring flow regimes offers multiple benefits to macroinvertebrate communities, such as maintaining suitable habitats, facilitating migration and dispersal, and supporting key ecological processes like nutrient cycling and sediment transport (Monk et al. 2008). Various techniques for flow regime restoration include environmental flows, dam removal, and modification (Table 3).

Environmental flows describe the necessary quantity, timing, and quality of water flow for maintaining the ecological integrity of river systems and supporting diverse flora and fauna, including macroinvertebrates (Poff & Zimmerman 2010). Implementing environmental flows entails developing flow management plans that account for natural flow variability and mimic the seasonal patterns that are vital for ecosystem health. Approaches to achieving environmental flows include reallocating water resources, adjusting extraction limits, and modifying water infrastructure operations, such as dams and reservoirs. Restoring environmental flows helps river managers maintain aquatic habitat connectivity, which is crucial for macroinvertebrate dispersal, reproduction, and the preservation of genetic diversity (Theodoropoulos et al. 2018). Environmental flows also bolster natural sediment transport and nutrient cycling processes, which are essential for creating and sustaining diverse macroinvertebrate habitats like riffles and backwaters. Moreover, environmental flows enhance the resilience of river systems by improving their adaptability to external stressors, such as climate change and habitat degradation (Pander et al. 2019).

Dam removal and modification offer additional avenues for flow regime restoration, addressing the ecological impacts of dams and other barriers on river systems (Carlson et al. 2018; Chiu et al. 2013; Hansen & Hayes 2012). Dams can considerably alter the natural flow regimes of rivers, disrupting aquatic habitat connectivity, and hindering the migration and dispersal of macroinvertebrates and other organisms. Removing dams, either fully or partially, restores river connectivity, improves water quality, and reinstates natural sediment transport processes, benefiting macroinvertebrate populations.

In cases where the complete removal of a dam is not feasible because of economic, social, or technical limitations, dam modification is an alternative to improve the ecological conditions of river systems (Bednarek & Hart 2005). Dam modification strategies might involve installing fish passage structures like fish ladders or bypass channels, facilitating the movement of macroinvertebrates and other organisms around barriers (Salmaso et al. 2021). Additionally, operational changes, such as modifying reservoir release patterns and spillway designs, can restore more natural flow regimes and minimize the ecological impacts of dams on macroinvertebrate communities.

Riparian zone restoration

Riparian zone restoration plays a vital role in river restoration and management, aiming to boost the ecological health, functioning, and resilience of river systems by rehabilitating and preserving vegetated areas near rivers and streams (Jianchun & Buzhuo 2003; Richardson et al. 2007). These areas are essential for supporting diverse flora and fauna, including macroinvertebrates (Brederveld et al. 2011), by offering crucial ecological services like erosion control, water quality improvement, and habitat provision (Table 4).

Buffer zones, vegetated areas beside rivers and streams, create protective barriers between aquatic ecosystems and adjacent land uses, such as agricultural fields and urban developments (Mc Conigley et al. 2017). Establishing buffer zones effectively mitigates land use impacts on river systems and enhances the ecological health of macroinvertebrate communities (Growns & Davis 1991). They help reduce erosion and sedimentation by stabilizing riverbanks and capturing sediment from upland areas, thereby maintaining suitable macroinvertebrate habitats. Furthermore, buffer zones filter pollutants from surface run-off and reduce nutrient inputs that contribute to eutrophication. They also provide essential habitat for various terrestrial and aquatic species, including macroinvertebrates, by offering shelter, food, and breeding sites. To be capable of delivering the necessary ecological functions, effective buffer zones must be wide enough and must comprise native vegetation adapted to local conditions (Parkyn et al. 2003).

Planting native vegetation in riparian zones is another crucial restoration technique, offering numerous benefits for macroinvertebrate communities (Glenn & Nagler 2005). Native plants, unlike non-native or invasive species, are better suited to local conditions and more effectively support the diverse array of ecosystem functions necessary for healthy river systems (Richardson et al. 2007). Native vegetation provides macroinvertebrate habitat both within the river and indirectly through allochthonous organic matter input, fueling the riverine food web. Additionally, native plants can regulate water temperatures by providing shade, maintaining suitable thermal conditions for various macroinvertebrate species.

Native vegetation planting contributes to river system stability and resilience, enhancing the ability of the river system to recover from disturbances such as floods, droughts, and other stressors (Shilpakar et al. 2021). Riparian vegetation with extensive root systems stabilizes riverbanks and reduces erosion. Simultaneously, diverse plant communities support various ecological functions like nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and habitat provision for multiple organisms, including macroinvertebrates. The successful implementation of native vegetation planting necessitates careful planning, site preparation, and ongoing maintenance, ensuring long-term ecological benefits and establishing self-sustaining plant communities (Gao et al. 2019). Incorporating these riparian zone restoration techniques into river restoration and management efforts allows practitioners to support macroinvertebrate community conservation, improve ecosystem functioning, and foster river ecosystem sustainability and resilience in the long run.

Connectivity restoration

Connectivity restoration is a vital aspect of river restoration and management efforts aimed at enhancing the ecological health, functioning, and resilience of river systems by re-establishing the movement of organisms, including macroinvertebrates, between habitats that have been fragmented or disconnected due to human activities (Mcmanamay et al. 2019; Shao et al. 2019). Improving connectivity can provide numerous benefits for macroinvertebrate populations, such as promoting genetic diversity, facilitating the recolonization of habitats after disturbances, and enabling access to various resources required for feeding, reproduction, and refuge (Dong et al. 2021; Harrison et al. 2023).

Habitat degradation, physical barriers, predation, and physiological stressors are factors that impede macroinvertebrate movement, posing significant challenges to connectivity restoration efforts (Chakraborty et al. 2022; Chi et al. 2022; Croijmans et al. 2021; Mitsopoulos et al. 2020; Weiss et al. 2022; Xu et al. 2020). Urbanization, agriculture, and hydropower development can fragment habitats, limit gene flow, and cause genetic drift and inbreeding depression. Similarly, dams, weirs, and culverts can disrupt water and sediment flow, food webs, and macroinvertebrate habitats. Additionally, extreme temperatures, oxygen depletion, and chemical exposure can weaken or kill macroinvertebrates, reducing their mobility and ability to recolonize. Effective restoration requires identifying and addressing these underlying factors (Table 5).

The improvement of fish passage is a critical component of connectivity restoration efforts, as many macroinvertebrate species rely on fish for dispersal, either through attachment to fish or by utilizing the same passageways (Van Puijenbroek et al. 2021). Ensuring that fish can effectively move between river habitats can indirectly benefit macroinvertebrate populations by promoting the exchange of individuals and genetic material between populations, thereby enhancing their resilience to environmental disturbances and reducing the risk of local extinctions (Favaro et al. 2014; Kimmel & Argent 2016). The improvement of fish passage can be achieved through a variety of measures, such as installing fish ladders, fish lifts, or bypass channels at barriers like dams, weirs, and culverts, which enable fish and other aquatic organisms to move freely between habitats. Additionally, modifying or removing barriers to fish movement can help restore more natural flow regimes and sediment transport processes, further benefiting macroinvertebrate communities (Gallardo et al. 2014; Leigh & Sheldon 2009).

The removal of barriers to macroinvertebrate movement is another essential strategy for improving connectivity and supporting healthy macroinvertebrate communities in river ecosystems (Hastings et al. 2016; Kim & Choi 2019). Barriers include dams, weirs, and culverts, as well as less obvious impediments, such as sedimentation, excessive vegetation growth, or habitat fragmentation caused by land-use changes. Removing or modifying these barriers can help restore the natural movement patterns of macroinvertebrates between habitats, enabling them to access the necessary resources for feeding, reproduction, and refuge, as well as promoting gene flow and reducing the risk of population isolation (Rawer-Jost et al. 1998). The removal of barriers may involve the physical dismantling of structures, such as dams or weirs, or the modification of existing structures to allow for the passage of macroinvertebrates (Mahan et al. 2021; Noatch & Suski 2012). For example, incorporating roughened channels or step-pool systems in culverts can facilitate macroinvertebrate passage by creating more suitable flow conditions and habitat features (Khan & Colbo 2008). In addition, restoring riparian vegetation and reducing sedimentation can help mitigate habitat fragmentation and improve the overall connectivity of river systems, ultimately benefiting macroinvertebrate populations (Effert-Fanta et al. 2019; Ono et al. 2020; Stanford et al. 2020).

By incorporating these connectivity restoration techniques into river restoration and management efforts, practitioners can support the conservation of macroinvertebrate communities, enhance ecosystem functioning, and promote the long-term sustainability and resilience of river ecosystems (Fig. 3).

Integrated catchment management

Integrated catchment management (ICM) is a comprehensive approach to river management, focusing on conserving species in the river ecosystem and enhancing the functioning of river ecosystems (Falkenmark et al. 2004; Fenemor et al. 2011). Coordinating water resources, land use, and habitat conservation, ICM considers the complex interactions between biophysical, social, and economic factors. Acknowledging that ecological health is influenced by various factors and processes, ICM requires a holistic understanding. By considering entire catchment areas, ICM addresses root causes of environmental degradation and habitat loss. ICM integrates multiple stakeholder perspectives, such as government agencies, local communities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector. This collaboration fosters shared responsibility and encourages innovative, locally appropriate solutions (Table 6).

Catchment management plans, a primary ICM tool, outline the strategic goals, objectives, and actions for sustainable water resource management and habitat conservation (Falkenmark 2004; Lerner et al. 2011; Prato & Herath 2007). Plans identify key environmental issues and develop targeted strategies, such as riparian zone restoration and flow regime restoration. ICM also implements monitoring and assessment programs to track changes in river health and to evaluate management actions. These programs utilize bioassessment, biomonitoring, remote sensing, and Geographic Information System (GIS) applications, providing a comprehensive understanding of ecological status and factors affecting macroinvertebrate populations. Adopting ICM allows river managers to develop effective, sustainable strategies for conserving macroinvertebrates and enhancing river ecosystems. This approach considers complex interrelationships between various factors, fostering a holistic, collaborative approach to river management that addresses diverse challenges.

Adaptive management

Adaptive management, a flexible and iterative approach, aims to conserve macroinvertebrate populations while enhancing the overall health, functioning, and resilience of river ecosystems (Mclain & Lee 1996; Rist et al. 2013; Williams 2011). Recognizing the inherent complexity and uncertainty in managing natural systems, this approach emphasizes learning, adapting, and refining practices over time. Establishing clear objectives, developing management plans with various potential actions, and implementing monitoring and assessment programs are central to adaptive management. It relies on data collection and analysis to assess management success, pinpoint areas for improvement, and make informed decisions.

For macroinvertebrate conservation, adaptive management includes assessing habitat conditions, population trends, and macroinvertebrate responses to different restoration and management actions (Kail et al. 2015; Moir & Block 2001). These data inform adjustments in management actions and strategies to maintain effectiveness amid changing conditions, emerging threats, or new scientific knowledge. Integrating various stakeholders, like government agencies, local communities, NGOs, and the private sector, adaptive management fosters a sense of shared responsibility, innovative solutions, and the continuous improvement of practices (Basheer et al. 2023).

Key challenges in adaptive management include long-term commitment, funding, institutional support, and developing robust monitoring and assessment programs for informed decision-making. Despite these challenges, adopting an adaptive management approach helps river managers create more effective, flexible, and resilient strategies to conserve macroinvertebrates and enhance river ecosystems, ensuring management actions stay relevant, effective, and responsive to the dynamic nature of river systems and their conservation challenges (Nie & Schultz 2012; Scarlett 2013; Williams & Brown 2016).

Community-based management

Community-based management is a collaborative, inclusive approach to river management, aiming to conserve macroinvertebrate populations and enhance the overall health, functioning, and resilience of river ecosystems (Chadd & Extence 2004; Thompson et al. 2003). Recognizing the crucial role that local communities play in river stewardship, this approach emphasizes their engagement and empowerment in decision-making, implementation, and monitoring.

Actively involving local communities in identifying environmental issues, setting priorities, developing management plans, and implementing actions, community-based management leverages their knowledge, skills, and resources (Reed 2008). This ensures that river management actions are tailored to local conditions, challenges, and more likely to be accepted and sustained by the communities themselves.

Collaboration among stakeholders is central to community-based management, including partnerships between local communities, government agencies, NGOs, academic institutions, and the private sector (Berkes 2007). These partnerships facilitate knowledge, expertise, and resource sharing, fostering shared responsibility for river conservation and management.

Community-based management helps build local capacity and fosters environmental awareness, education, and stewardship (Danielsen et al. 2005). Involving local communities in monitoring and assessment programs, like bioassessment, biomonitoring, or citizen science initiatives, deepens their understanding of ecological health and factors influencing macroinvertebrate populations (Conrad & Hilchey 2011). Increased awareness can lead to greater community engagement and support for conservation efforts.

Successful community-based management requires institutional support, capacity building, and appropriate governance structures for effective community participation in river management decision-making and implementation (Béné et al. 2011). Ongoing communication, transparency, and trust-building among stakeholders are also essential.

Adopting a community-based management approach enables river managers to develop effective, locally appropriate, and sustainable strategies for macroinvertebrate conservation and river ecosystem enhancement (Berkes 2007). This approach ensures management actions are grounded in local knowledge, supported by affected communities, and responsive to the diverse environmental, social, and cultural factors influencing river systems and their conservation (Olsson et al. 2004).

Monitoring and assessment

Policy and regulation

Policy and regulation are vital in conserving macroinvertebrate populations and enhancing river ecosystem health, functioning, and resilience (Allan et al. 2021). By developing and implementing effective policies and regulations, river management practices are guided, sensitive habitats are protected, and sustainable water resource use is ensured. This clear legal framework fosters collaboration, enforces best practices, and promotes long-term environmental stewardship (Richter et al. 2003).

In river management and macroinvertebrate conservation, policies and regulations address various aspects. These include water quality standards, land-use planning, riparian zone protection, and in-stream flow requirements. Implemented at different governance levels, such as local, regional, national, and international scales, they involve stakeholder groups like government agencies, NGOs, industry, and local communities (Richter et al. 2003).

Water quality standards are a key component of river management policy and regulation (Kerachian & Karamouz 2007). They establish enforceable limits on pollutant levels in surface waters, aiming to protect aquatic life, including macroinvertebrates, from the harmful effects of pollution. Monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, such as permitting systems and penalties for noncompliance, help ensure that these standards are met, leading to maintained or improved water quality over time.

Land-use planning policies and regulations contribute significantly to macroinvertebrate population conservation by controlling development in sensitive areas, encouraging sustainable agricultural practices, and preserving riparian habitats (García–Girón et al. 2022; Mouton et al. 2022). For instance, buffer zone regulations along riverbanks help protect riparian vegetation, providing essential macroinvertebrate habitat and supporting overall river ecosystem health (Sweeney & Newbold 2014).

In-stream flow requirements or environmental flow regulations represent another critical aspect of policy and regulation in river management (Richter et al. 2003). These requirements strive to maintain adequate water flow in rivers, supporting healthy ecosystems and crucial ecological processes like macroinvertebrate reproduction, dispersal, and habitat availability. By balancing human water use and aquatic ecosystem needs, in-stream flow regulations promote sustainable water resource management and protect the long-term health of river ecosystems.

Lastly, international treaties and agreements can impact river management and macroinvertebrate conservation, particularly in transboundary river systems crossing national borders. Such agreements can establish shared water quality standards, encourage collaborative management efforts, and enable data sharing among participating countries, fostering a more coordinated and effective approach to river management (Chatzinikolaou et al. 2008; Dimitriou et al. 2012).

Long-term monitoring and assessment

Long-term monitoring and assessment are crucial for effective river management and macroinvertebrate conservation (Wohl et al. 2005). These approaches offer invaluable insights into the ecological status of river systems, the impacts of stressors, and the effectiveness of river management. River managers can make informed decisions and adapt strategies, contributing to the health, functioning, and resilience of river ecosystems (Kondolf et al. 2006).

A primary benefit of long-term monitoring is detecting trends and patterns not apparent in short-term assessments (Jackson & Fuereder 2006). River managers can identify emerging issues, track changes, and evaluate management action success. Furthermore, long-term monitoring provides baseline data for assessing future disturbances, such as climate change or changes in land use. Maximizing the effectiveness of long-term monitoring requires well-designed programs featuring standardized sampling protocols, robust data analysis methods, and suitable spatial and temporal scales (Hewitt & Thrush 2007). Ensuring data consistency and comparability across sites and time periods enables trend identification and better management decisions.

Modern technologies, such as remote sensing, GIS, and advanced statistical modeling, can boost the efficiency and accuracy of long-term monitoring. These tools offer high-resolution data on environmental variables like land cover, vegetation, and water quality, enabling complex relationship analysis between variables and macroinvertebrate populations (Cruz et al. 2022; Schäfer 2019). Assessing macroinvertebrate communities should involve evaluating key biological indicators like community composition, diversity, and functional traits, as well as monitoring abiotic environmental variables (Bonacina et al. 2023; Sumudumali & Jayawardana 2021). Understanding the underlying mechanisms driving trends and patterns offers insights into the ecological processes and interactions shaping populations and ecosystems. Complementing long-term monitoring with targeted research on specific management actions or the impacts of stressors on macroinvertebrates, and developing predictive models and tools, can fill knowledge gaps and enhance the effectiveness of river management. This promotes adaptive river ecosystem management. Lastly, effective monitoring requires ongoing support, funding, and collaboration among diverse stakeholders, such as government agencies, NGOs, academia, communities, and the private sector (Buxton et al. 2020; Clinton et al. 2022; Deacon et al. 2023). Fostering partnerships and promoting data sharing enhances collective understanding, leading to more informed, sustainable, and resilient conservation strategies.

Novel restoration and monitoring techniques and technologies

Innovative restoration techniques and technologies are being developed and implemented to tackle challenges in river management and macroinvertebrate conservation. These approaches aim to enhance habitat quality, ecosystem function, and macroinvertebrate recovery, contributing to the long-term health and resilience of river ecosystems.

Bioengineered bank stabilization, an innovative restoration approach, combines engineering techniques and ecological principles (Moreau et al. 2022; Preti et al. 2022). It protects riverbanks from erosion while improving habitat quality. This method uses living plants, like willow cuttings or native grasses, alongside structural elements, such as rock gabions or coir logs. The result is stable, vegetated banks that provide valuable habitats.

Nature-based solutions harness natural processes for specific restoration objectives and are gaining traction in river management (Santoro et al. 2019; Schmidt et al. 2022). Floodplain reconnection projects, for instance, remove or modify levees and barriers, allowing rivers to access natural floodplains (Reaney 2022). This promotes floodwater storage, attenuation, and habitat diversity. Side channel restoration creates or enhances off-channel habitats like backwaters and alcoves, providing refuge during high flows.

Emerging technologies, such as environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis and remote sensing, play a crucial role in river restoration and macroinvertebrate conservation (Mächler et al. 2019; Marshall & Stepien 2020). eDNA techniques enable rapid and cost-effective species detection and monitoring, aiding in evaluating restoration actions and informing adaptive management. Remote sensing offers high-resolution data on environmental variables, helping to identify priority areas or monitor ongoing projects.

iEcology and artificial intelligence (AI) are emerging technologies with great potential to revolutionize our understanding of aquatic ecosystems and optimize management strategies. iEcology combines traditional ecological knowledge with data from digital sources, creating a powerful tool for monitoring and managing natural ecosystems (Jarić et al. 2020). Utilizing remote sensing, GIS, social media, mobile apps, and more, iEcology allows researchers and managers to gather, analyze, and share ecological data in real time, promoting effective conservation. Conversely, AI offers a cutting-edge approach to ecological data analysis and management (Cha et al. 2021). Specifically, machine learning algorithms, a branch of AI, can process vast datasets, identifying patterns, trends, and relationships that traditional statistical methods might miss.

As river restoration evolves, collaboration between researchers and practitioners in developing, testing, and refining novel techniques and technologies is essential. This collaboration ensures effective and sustainable approaches are employed, addressing challenges facing river ecosystems and macroinvertebrate communities, and ultimately supporting long-term health and resilience.

Incorporation of macroinvertebrate conservation in river management policies and plans

Incorporating macroinvertebrate conservation into river management is essential for safeguarding the long-term health, functioning, and resilience of river ecosystems (Bonada et al. 2006; Caughlan & Oakley 2001; Kefford et al. 2020; Tharme 2003; Wallace & Webster 1996). To effectively integrate their conservation into river management, consider these key steps (Fig. 3).

First, develop a comprehensive understanding of macroinvertebrate communities, including their ecological requirements, stressors, and responses. Understanding habitat preferences, life history strategies, and ecosystem roles can help identify conservation priorities, develop targeted actions, and establish measurable objectives.

Second, establish monitoring and assessment programs, which are vital for evaluating the effectiveness of management and informing adaptive strategies. Programs should incorporate standardized protocols, robust analysis methods, and suitable spatial and temporal scales, ensuring data consistency and comparability.

Third, implement evidence-based management actions, rooted in the best available science, and tailored to address the specific needs and challenges of macroinvertebrate communities. This may encompass habitat restoration, water quality improvement, or flow regime management. Continuously evaluate and adapt the strategies based on new knowledge and monitoring results.

Fourth, collaborate and engage with diverse stakeholders, including government agencies, NGOs, academia, local communities, and the private sector. Fostering partnerships, sharing information and resources, and promoting public awareness and involvement enhance collective understanding and inform sustainable management strategies.

Fifth, integrate conservation objectives into broader policy frameworks, such as water quality standards, land-use planning, and climate change adaptation. This ensures macroinvertebrate conservation and habitat preservation are considered across different sectors and scales.

Sixth, provide funding and resources to support conservation efforts, including research, monitoring, and management actions. Secure dedicated funding sources, leverage existing opportunities, or develop innovative financing mechanisms, like payment for ecosystem services programs or public–private partnerships.

Incorporating macroinvertebrate conservation activities for river management policies and plans helps to safeguard the health, functioning, and resilience of these vital ecosystems and the diverse species that depend on them (Deacon et al. 2023; Hill et al. 2016; Miatta et al. 2021). This integrated approach contributes to the long-term sustainability of rivers and their numerous ecological, social, and economic benefits.