‘Listen to them’: Adolescents' views on helping young people who self-injure
Emily Berger
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Penelope Hasking
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia
Corresponding author. School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800 Vic, Australia. Tel.: +61 3 9902 4024.Search for more papers by this authorGraham Martin
Department of Psychiatry, The University of Queensland, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorEmily Berger
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Penelope Hasking
School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Australia
Corresponding author. School of Psychology and Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800 Vic, Australia. Tel.: +61 3 9902 4024.Search for more papers by this authorGraham Martin
Department of Psychiatry, The University of Queensland, Australia
Search for more papers by this authorABSTRACT
Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among adolescents is a significant problem, yet the majority do not seek professional help. Parents and teachers are arguably most in contact with young people, and are critical in identifying and referring adolescent self-injurers. This study explored what adolescents believe parents and teachers can do to help young people who self-injure. A school-based sample of 2637 students (aged 12–18 years) completed a self-report questionnaire. Adolescents believe having non-judgemental parents and teachers to talk to, improved parent–child relationships, referral to professionals, reduced school pressures, and student education, are pivotal to helping young self-injurers. However, many adolescents, particularly those exposed to NSSI, were unsure about whether parents and teachers could do anything to help. These finding have important implications for educational programs that prepare parents and teachers to address adolescent NSSI.
References
- T. Andrews, G. Martin, P. Hasking. Differential and common correlates of non-suicidal self-injury and alcohol use among community-based adolescents. Advances in Mental Health. 2012; 11 (1): 55–66 10.5172/jamh.2012.11.1.55.
10.5172/jamh.2012.11.1.55 Google Scholar
- Australian Bureau of Statistics. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander wellbeing: A focus on children and youth, Catalogue No. 4725.02012, Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/4725.0Chapter100Apr%202011
- R. Best. Deliberate self-harm in adolescence: a challenge for schools. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling. 2006; 34 2: 161–175 – 10.1080/03069880600583196.
- V. Braun, V. Clarke. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2006; 3 (2): 77–101 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Google Scholar
- J.F. Bureau, J. Martin, N. Freynet, A.A. Poirier, M.F. Lafontaine, P. Cloutier. Perceived dimensions of parenting and non-suicidal self-injury in young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2010; 5: 484–494 10.1007/s10964–009–9470–4.
- S. Byrne, S. Morgan, C. Fitzpatrick, C. Boylan, S. Crowley, H. Gahan, et al. Deliberate self-harm in children and adolescents: a qualitative study exploring the needs of parents and carers. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2008; 13 (4): 493–504 10.1177/1359104508096765.
- L. Carlson, S.M. DeGeer, C. Deur, K. Fenton. Teachers' awareness of self-cutting behavior among the adolescent population. Praxis. 2005; 5: 22–29.
- C. Coggan, P. Patterson, J. Fill. Suicide: qualitative data from focus group interviews with youth. Social Science & Medicine. 1997; 45 10: 1563–1570.
- K.R. Conner, J. Langley, K.J. Tomaszewski, Y. Cornwell. Injury hospitalisation and risk for subsequent self-injury and suicide: a national study from New Zealand. American Journal of Public Health. 2003; 93 7: 1128–1131.
- D. De Leo, T.S. Heller. Who are the kids who self-harm? an Australian self-report school survey. The Medical Journal of Australia. 2004; 181: 140–144.
- E. Evans, K. Hawton, K. Rodham. In what ways are adolescents who engage in self-harm or experience thoughts of self-harm different in terms of help-seeking, communication and coping strategies?. Journal of Adolescence. 2005; 28: 573–587 10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.11.001.
- S. Fortune, J. Sinclair, K. Hawton. Adolescents' views on preventing self-harm: a large community study. Social Psychiatry. 2008; 43: 96–104 10.1007/s00127–007–0273–1.
10.1007/s00127–007–0273–1 Google Scholar
- S. Fortune, J. Sinclair, K. Hawton. Help-seeking before and after episodes of self-harm: a descriptive study in school pupils in England. BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 369–382 10.1186/1471–2458–8–369.
- K.L. Gratz. Risk factors for and functions of deliberate self-harm: an empirical and conceptual review. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice. 2003; 10 2: 192–205 – 10.1093/clipsy.bpg022.
- K.L. Gratz, A.L. Chapman. The role of emotional responding and childhood maltreatment in the development and maintenance of deliberate self-harm among male undergraduates. Psychology of Men and Masculinity. 2007; 8 (1): 1–14 10.1037/1524–9220.8.1.1.
10.1037/1524–9220.8.1.1 Google Scholar
- K.L. Gratz, S.D. Conrad, L. Roemer. Risk factors for deliberate self-harm among college students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2002; 72: 128–140 10.1093/clipsy.bpg022.
- P.M. Gutierrez, A. Osman, F.X. Barrios, B.A. Kopper. Development and initial validation of the self-harm behavior questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment. 2001; 77 (3): 475–490 10.1207/S15327752JPA7703_08.
- K. Hawton, J. Fagg, S. Simkin. Deliberate self-poisoning and self-injury in children and adolescents under 16 years of age in Oxford, 1976–1993. British Journal of Psychiatry. 1996; 169: 202–208 10.1192/bjp.169.2.202.
- K. Hawton, K. Rodham, E. Evans, L. Harriss. Adolescents who self harm: a comparison of those who go to hospital and those who do not. Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2009; 14 (1): 24–30 10.1111/j.1475–3588.2008.00485.x.
- N.L. Heath, J.R. Toste, E.L. Beettam. ‘I am not well-equipped’: high school teachers’ perceptions of self-injury. Canadian Journal of School Psychology. 2006; 21: 73–92 10.1177/0829573506298471.
10.1177/0829573506298471 Google Scholar
- N.L. Heath, J.R. Toste, T. Nedecheva, A. Charlebois. An examination of nonsuicidal self-injury among college students. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 2008; 30 2: 137–156.
10.17744/mehc.30.2.8p879p3443514678 Google Scholar
- N.L. Heath, J.R. Toste, M.J. Sornberger, C. Wagner. Teachers' perceptions of non-suicidal self-injury in the schools. School Mental Health. 2011; 3: 35–43 10.1007/s12310–010–9043–4.
10.1007/s12310–010–9043–4 Google Scholar
- E. Heled, J. Read. Young peoples' opinions about the causes of, and solutions to, New Zealand's high youth suicide rate. Suicide and Life – Threatening Behavior. 2005; 35 (2): 170–180 10.1521/suli.35.2.170.62881.
- L.M. Hilt, M.K. Nock, E.E. Lloyd-Richardson, M.J. Prinstein. Longitudinal study of nonsuicidal self-injury among young adolescents: rates, correlates, and preliminary test of an interpersonal model. The Journal of Early Adolescence. 2008; 28: 455–469 10.1177/0272431608316604.
- M. Hume, S. Platt. Appropriate interventions for the prevention and management of self-harm: a qualitative exploration of service-users' views. BMC Public Health. 2007; 7: 9–18 10.1186/1471–2458–7–9.
- C.M. Jacobson, M. Gould. The epidemiology and phenomenology of non-suicidal self-injurious behavior among adolescents: a critical review of the literature. Archives of Suicide Research. 2007; 11 (2): 129–147 10.1080/13811110701247602.
- E.D. Klonsky, J.J. Muehlenkamp, S.P. Lewis, B.W. Walsh, D. Wedding, L. Beutler, K.E. Freedland, L.C. Sobell, D.A. Wolfe. Nonsuicidal self-injury. In Advances in psychotherapy: Evidence-based practice. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe Publishing. 2011.
- J.R. Landis, G.G. Koch. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977; 33: 159–174.
- E.E. Lloyd-Richardson, N. Perrine, L. Dierker, M.L. Kelley. Characteristics and functions of non-suicidal self-injury in a community sample of adolescents. Psychological Medicine. 2007; 37 (8): 1183–1192 10.1017/S003329170700027X.
- J. Martin, J. Bureau, P. Cloutier, M. Lafontaine. A comparison of invalidating family environment characteristics between university students engaging in self-injurious thoughts & actions and non-self-injuring university students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2011; 40: 1477–1488 10.1007/s10964–011–9643–9.
- G. Martin, S. Swannell, J. Harrison, P. Hazell, A. Taylor. The Australian national epidemiological study of self-injury (ANESSI). Brisbane, Australia: Center for Suicide Prevention Studies. 2010.
- J.J. Muehlenkamp, P.M. Gutierrez. An investigation of differences between self-injurious behaviour and suicide attempts in a sample of adolescents. Suicide and Life – Threatening Behavior. 2004; 34 (1): 12–23 10.1521/suli.34.1.12.27769.
- J.J. Muehlenkamp, B.W. Walsh, M. McDade. Preventing non-suicidal self-injury in adolescents: the signs of self-injury program. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2010; 39: 306–314 10.1007/s10964–009–9450–8.
- S. Nada-Raja, D. Morrison, K. Skegg. A population-based study of help-seeking for self-harm in young adults. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2003; 37 (5): 600–605 10.1046/j.1440–1614.2003.01252.x.
- M.K. Nock. Understanding nonsuicidal self-injury: Origins, assessment, and treatment understanding nonsuicidal self-injury: Origins, assessment, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 2009.
10.1037/11875-000 Google Scholar
- A. Oldershaw, C. Richards, M. Simic, U. Schmidt. Parents' perspectives on adolescent self-harm: qualitative study. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2008; 193: 140–144 10.1192/bjp.bp.107.045930.
- D. Owens, J. Horrocks, A. House. Fatal and non-fatal repetition of self-harm. British Journal of Psychiatry. 2002; 181: 193–199 10.1192/bjp.181.3.193.
- H. Raphael, G. Clarke, S. Kumar. Exploring parents' response to their child's deliberate self-harm. Health Education. 2006; 106 (1): 9–20 10.1108/09654280610637166.
10.1108/09654280610637166 Google Scholar
- M. Rissanen, J. Kylmä, E. Laukkanen. Descriptions of help by Finnish adolescents who self-mutilate. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing. 2009; 22 (1): 7–15 10.1111/j.1744–6171.2008.00164.x.
- M. Rissanen, J. Kylmä, E. Laukkanen. Helping adolescents who self-mutilate: parental descriptions. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2009; 18: 1711–1721 10.1111/j.1365–2702.2008.02672.x.
- S. Roberts-Dobie, R.J. Donatelle. School counsellors and student self-injury. The Journal of School Health. 2007; 77 5: 257–264.
- K. Rodham, K. Hawton, M.K. Nock. Epidemiology and phenomenology of nonsuicidal self-injury. In Understanding nonsuicidal self-injury: Origins, assessment, and treatment. Washington: APA Books. 2009.
10.1037/11875-003 Google Scholar
- S. Ross, N. Heath. A study of the frequency of self-mutilation in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2002; 31: 67–77 10.1023/A:1014089117419.
- S. Shapiro. Addressing self-injury in the school setting. The Journal of School Nursing. 2008; 24 3: 124–130.
- P. Storey, J. Hurry, S. Jowitt, D. Owens, A. House. Supporting young people who repeatedly self-harm. The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. 2005; 125 (2): 71–75 10.1177/146642400512500210.
- S. Swannell, G. Martin, A. Page, P.A. Hasking, P. Hazell, A. Taylor, et al. Child maltreatment, subsequent non-suicidal self-injury and the mediating roles of dissociation, alexithymia and self-blame. Child Abuse & Neglect. 2012; 36: 572–584.
- T.L. Taylor, K. Hawton, S. Fortune, N. Kapur. Attitudes towards clinical services among people who self-harm: systematic review. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2009; 194: 104–110 10.1192/bjp.bp.107.046425.
- H.C. Trepal, K.L. Wester, C.A. MacDonald. Self-injury and postvention: responding to the family in crisis. The Family Journal. 2006; 14: 342–348 10.1177/1066480706291128.
10.1177/1066480706291128 Google Scholar
- B.A. van der Kolk, C. Perry, J.L. Herman. Childhood origins of self-destructive behaviour. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1991; 148: 1665–1671.
- A. Warm, C. Murray, J. Fox. Who helps? Supporting people who self-harm. Journal of Mental Health. 2002; 11 (2): 121–130 10.1080/096382301200041533.
10.1080/096382301200041533 Google Scholar
- J.L. Whitlock, J. Eckenrode, D. Sliverman. Self-injurious behaviours in a college population. Pediatrics. 2006; 117 (6): 1939–1948 10.1542/peds.2005–2543.
- T.M. Yates, A.J. Tracy, S.S. Luthar. Nonsuicidal self-injury among “privileged” youths: longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to developmental process. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2008; 76: 52–62 10.1037/0022–006X.76.1.52.