Review Article
Nanoporous biomaterials for uremic toxin adsorption in artificial kidney systems: A review
Wee-Keat Cheah,
Kunio Ishikawa,
Radzali Othman,
Fei-Yee Yeoh,
Wee-Keat Cheah
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorKunio Ishikawa
Department of Biomaterials, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Nishi Ward, Japan
Search for more papers by this authorRadzali Othman
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100n Durian Tunggal, Malacca, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Fei-Yee Yeoh
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Correspondence to: F.-Y. Yeoh; e-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorWee-Keat Cheah,
Kunio Ishikawa,
Radzali Othman,
Fei-Yee Yeoh,
Wee-Keat Cheah
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorKunio Ishikawa
Department of Biomaterials, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Nishi Ward, Japan
Search for more papers by this authorRadzali Othman
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100n Durian Tunggal, Malacca, Malaysia
Search for more papers by this authorCorresponding Author
Fei-Yee Yeoh
School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
Correspondence to: F.-Y. Yeoh; e-mail: [email protected]Search for more papers by this authorAbstract
Hemodialysis, one of the earliest artificial kidney systems, removes uremic toxins via diffusion through a semipermeable porous membrane into the dialysate fluid. Miniaturization of the present hemodialysis system into a portable and wearable device to maintain continuous removal of uremic toxins would require that the amount of dialysate used within a closed-system is greatly reduced. Diffused uremic toxins within a closed-system dialysate need to be removed to maintain the optimum concentration gradient for continuous uremic toxin removal by the dialyzer. In this dialysate regenerative system, adsorption of uremic toxins by nanoporous biomaterials is essential. Throughout the years of artificial kidney development, activated carbon has been identified as a potential adsorbent for uremic toxins. Adsorption of uremic toxins necessitates nanoporous biomaterials, especially activated carbon. Nanoporous biomaterials are also utilized in hemoperfusion for uremic toxin removal. Further miniaturization of artificial kidney system and improvements on uremic toxin adsorption capacity would require high performance nanoporous biomaterials which possess not only higher surface area, controlled pore size, but also designed architecture or structure and surface functional groups. This article reviews on various nanoporous biomaterials used in current artificial kidney systems and several emerging nanoporous biomaterials. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 105B: 1232–1240, 2017.
REFERENCES
- 1 Kolff WJ. The artificial kidney. The Artificial Kidney. 1946.
- 2 Kirwan C, Frankel A. The artificial kidney. Artif Org 2009: 39–55.
- 3 Fissell WH, Roy S, Davenport A. Achieving more frequent and longer dialysis for the majority: Wearable dialysis and implantable artificial kidney devices. Kidney Int 2013; 84: 256–264.
- 4 Gura V, Macy AS, Beizai M, Ezon C, Golper TA. Technical breakthroughs in the wearable artificial kidney (WAK). Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 4: 1441–1448.
- 5 Yatzidis H. Charcoal for the treatment of endogenous and exogenous intoxications. Its use as an effective artificial kidney. Proc Eur Dialysis Transplant Assoc 1964; 1: 83.
- 6 Zhao XS, Lu GQ. Nanoporous Materials — An Overview. In: TK Wei, editor. Nanoporous Materials: Science and Engineering. London: Imperial College Press; 2004. p 1–13.
- 7 Ronco C, Davenport A, Gura V. Toward the wearable artificial kidney. Hemodialysis Int 2008; 12: S40–S47.
- 8 Gura V, Ronco C, Davenport A. The Wearable Artificial Kidney, Why and How: From Holy Grail to Reality. Wiley Online Library; 2008. pp 13–17.
- 9 Marsh H, Rodríguez-Reinoso F. Chapter 1—Introduction to the scope of the text. In: HM Rodríguez-Reinoso, editor. Activated Carbon. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd; 2006. pp 1–12.
- 10 Duranton F, Cohen G, De Smet R, Rodriguez M, Jankowski J, Vanholder R, Argiles A. Normal and pathologic concentrations of uremic toxins. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012; 23: 1258–1270.
- 11 Vanholder R, De Smet R, Glorieux G, Argilés A, Baurmeister U, Brunet P, Clark W, Cohen G, De Deyn PP, Deppisch R. Review on uremic toxins: Classification, concentration, and interindividual variability. Kidney Int 2003; 63: 1934–1943.
- 12 Meert N, Schepers E, De Smet R, Argiles A, Cohen G, Deppisch R, Drüeke T, Massy Z, Spasovski G, Stegmayr B. Inconsistency of reported uremic toxin concentrations. Artif Org 2007; 31: 600–611.
- 13
Maher JF. Replacement of renal function by dialysis: a text book of dialysis. Netherlands: Springer; 1989.
10.1007/978-94-009-1087-4 Google Scholar
- 14 Rahman MH, Haqqie SS, McGoldrick MD. Acute hemolysis with acute renal failure in a patient with valproic acid poisoning treated with charcoal hemoperfusion. Hemodialysis Int 2006; 10: 256–259.
- 15
Drukker W, Haemodialysis: a historical review. In: J Mather, editor. Replacement of renal function by dialysis: a textbook of dialysis. Netherlands: Springer; 1989. p 20–73.
10.1007/978-94-009-1087-4_3 Google Scholar
- 16 De Broe ME, Verpooten G, Christiaens M, Rutsaert R, Holvoet J, Nagler J, Heyndrickx A. Clinical experience with prolonged combined hemoperfusion-hemodialysis treatment of severe poisoning. Artif Org 1981; 5: 59.
- 17 Ronco C, Brendolan A, Winchester JF, Golds E, Clemmer J, Polaschegg HD, Muller TE, La Greca G, Levin NW. First clinical experience with an adjunctive hemoperfusion device designed specifically to remove β2-microglobulin in hemodialysis. Blood Purif 2001; 19: 260–263.
- 18 Frank R, Kierdorf H. Is there a role for hemoperfusion/hemodialysis as a treatment option in severe tricyclic antidepressant intoxication? Int J Artif Org 2000; 23: 618–623.
- 19 Davenport A, Gura V, Ronco C, Beizai M, Ezon C, Rambod E. A wearable haemodialysis device for patients with end-stage renal failure: A pilot study. Lancet 2007; 370: 2005–2010.
- 20 Bergé-Lefranc D, Vagner C, Calaf R, Pizzala H, Denoyel R, Brunet P, Ghobarkar H, Schäf O. In vitro elimination of protein bound uremic toxin p-cresol by MFI-type zeolites. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 2012; 153: 288–293.
- 21 Bergé-Lefranc D, Vagner C, Schäf O, Boulet P, Pizzala H, Paillaud JL, Denoyel R. Adsorption of small uremic toxin molecules onto zeolites: A first step toward an alternative kidney. In: ZGJC Ruren Xu, Y Wenfu, editors. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis. Elsevier; 2007. pp 1015–1020.
- 22 Guarino J. guarino. U.S. Patent No. 2,715,097; 1955.
- 23 Chang TM, Gonda A, Dirks JH, Malave N. Clinical evaluation of chronic, intermittent, and short term hemoperfusions in patients with chronic renal failure using semipermeable microcapsules (artificial cells) formed from membrane-coated activated charcoal. ASAIO J 1971; 17: 246–252.
- 24 Grossman C. Apparatus for the in vivo treatment of blood containing harmful components resulting from chronic uremia and other conditions. U.S. Patent No. 3,742,946; 1973.
- 25 Strom RM, Murray DJ. Surface modified polymer beads. U.S. Patent No. 6,325,939; 2001.
- 26 Wernert V, Schaf O, Ghobarkar H, Denoyel R. Adsorption properties of zeolites for artificial kidney applications. Microporous Mesoporous Mater 2005; 83: 101–113.
- 27 Wernert V, Schaf O, Faure V, Brunet P, Dou L, Berland Y, Boulet P, Kuchta B, Denoyel R. Adsorption of the uremic toxin p-cresol onto hemodialysis membranes and microporous adsorbent zeolite silicalite. J Biotechnol 2006; 123: 164–173.
- 28 Bergé-Lefranc D, Pizzala H, Paillaud J, Schäf O, Vagner C, Boulet P, Kuchta B, Denoyel R. Adsorption of small uremic toxin molecules on MFI type zeolites from aqueous solution. Adsorption 2008; 14: 377–387.
- 29 Dinh DC, Recht NS, Hostetter TH, Meyer TW. Coated carbon hemoperfusion provides limited clearance of protein bound solutes. Artif Org 2008; 32: 717–724.
- 30 Gurland H. Hemoperfusion in the treatment of uremia. Kidney Int Suppl 1985; 17: S47.
- 31 Ronco C, Davenport A, Gura V. A wearable artificial kidney: Dream or reality? Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2008; 4: 604–605.
- 32 Polaschegg HD. Wearable dialysis: What is missing? Contrib Nephrol 2011; 171: 226–230.
- 33 Yoshida F. >Apparatus for treatment of artificial kidney dialyzing fluid. U.S. Patent No. 4,118,314; 1978.
- 34 Henne W; Google Patents, assignee. Artificial kidney. U.S. patent 4,212,738. 1980.
- 35 Davankov VA. Artificial kidney. U.S. Patent No. 5,545,131; 1996.
- 36 Granger A, Sausse A. Artificial kidney and a method of ultrafiltering a liquid. U.S. Patent No. 3,939,069; 1976.
- 37 Gura V, Rambod E. Wearable ultrafiltration device. U.S. Patent No. 7,645,253; 2010.
- 38 Eknoyan G. Artificial kidneys: Progress and promise. The Lancet 2007; 370: 1977–1978.
- 39 Ronco C, Fecondini L. The Vicenza wearable artificial kidney for peritoneal dialysis (ViWAK PD). Blood Purif 2007; 25: 383–388.
- 40 Lee DB, Roberts M. A peritoneal-based automated wearable artificial kidney. Clin Exp Nephrol 2008; 12: 171–180.
- 41 Diaz-Buxo JA, Farmer CD, Walker PJ, Chandler JT, Holt KL. Continuous cyclic peritoneal dialysis: A preliminary report. Artif Org 1981; 5: 157–161.
- 42 Olcott IV C, Feldman CA, Coplon NS, Oppenheimer ML, Mehigan JT. Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: Technique of catheter insertion and management of associated surgical complications. Am J Surg 1983; 146: 98–102.
- 43 Sinnakirouchenan R, Holley JL. Peritoneal dialysis versus hemodialysis: Risks, benefits, and access issues. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2011; 18: 428–432.
- 44 Fissell WH, Fleischman AJ, Humes HD, Roy S. Development of continuous implantable renal replacement: Past and future. Transl Res 2007; 150: 327–336.
- 45 Chirito E, Reiter B, Lister C, Chang T. Artificial liver: The effect of ACAC microencapsulated charcoal hemoperfusion on fulminant hepatic failure. Artif Org 1977; 1: 76–83.
- 46 Shnyra A, Bocharov A, Bochkova N, Spirov V. Bioartificial liver using hepatocytes on biosilon microcamers: Treatment of chemically induced acute hepatic failure in rats. Artif Org 2008; 15: 189–197.
- 47 Borkan SC. Extracorporeal therapies for acute intoxications. Crit Care Clin 2002; 18: 393–420.
- 48 Higgins R, Goldsmith D, MacDiarmid-Gordon A, Taberner D, Venning M, Ackrill P. Treating paracetamol overdose by charcoal haemoperfusion and long-hours high-flux dialysis. QJM 1996; 89: 297–302.
- 49 Shannon M. Predictors of major toxicity after theophylline overdose. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119: 1161–1167.
- 50 Koffler A, Bernstein M, LaSette A, Massry SG. Fixed-bed charcoal hemoperfusion: Treatment of drug overdose. Arch Intern Med 1978; 138: 1691–1694.
- 51 Yarmush M, Dunn J, Tompkins R. Assessment of artificial liver support technology. Cell Transplant 1992; 1: 323.
- 52 Yoshiba M, Inoue K, Sekiyama K, Koh I. Favorable effect of new artificial liver support on survival of patients with fulminant hepatic failure. Artif Org 1996; 20: 1169–1172.
- 53 Tijink MSL, Wester M, Sun J, Saris A, Bolhuis-Versteeg LAM, Saiful S, Joles JA, Borneman Z, Wessling M, Stamatialis DF. A novel approach for blood purification: Mixed-matrix membranes combining diffusion and adsorption in one step. Acta Biomater 2012; 8: 2279–2287.
- 54 Wang J, Yang X, Wu D, Fu R, Dresselhaus MS, Dresselhaus G. The porous structures of activated carbon aerogels and their effects on electrochemical performance. J Power Sources 2008; 185: 589–594.
- 55 Tan I, Ahmad A, Hameed B. Adsorption of basic dye on high-surface-area activated carbon prepared from coconut husk: Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. J Hazard Mater 2008; 154: 337–346.
- 56 Singh KP, Mohan D, Sinha S, Tondon G, Gosh D. Color removal from wastewater using low-cost activated carbon derived from agricultural waste material. Ind Eng Chem Res 2003; 42: 1965–1976.
- 57 Reed BE, Nonavinakere SK. Metal adsorption by activated carbon: Effect of complexing ligands, competing adsorbates, ionic strength, and background electrolyte. Sep Sci Technol 1992; 27: 1985–2000.
- 58 Bansal RC, Donnet J-B, Stoeckli F. Active carbon. M. Dekker; 1988.
- 59 Bergé-Lefranc D, Eyraud M, Schäf O. Electrochemical determination of p-cresol concentration using zeolite-modified electrodes. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2008; 11: 1063–1073.
- 60
Roque-Malherbe RM. Adsorption and diffusion in nanoporous materials. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC press; 2007.
10.1201/9781420046762 Google Scholar
- 61 Murugesan S, Park TJ, Yang H, Mousa S, Linhardt RJ. Blood compatible carbon nanotubes-nano-based neoproteoglycans. Langmuir 2006; 22: 3461–3463.
- 62 Buturović J, Ponikvar R, Kandus A, Boh M, Klinkmann J, Ivanovich P. Filling hemodialysis catheters in the interdialytic period: Heparin versus citrate versus polygeline: A prospective randomized study. Artif Org 2002; 22: 945–947.
- 63 Winchester JF. Complications of Hemoperfusion. Complications of dialysis. New York: Marcel Dekker; 2000.
- 64 Winchester JF, Ratcliffe JG, Carlyle E, Kennedy AC. Solute, amino acid, and hormone changes with coated charcoal hemoperfusion in uremia. Kidney Int 1978; 14: 74–81.
- 65 Yantasee W, Fryxell GE, Porter GA, Pattamakomsan K, Sukwarotwat V, Chouyyok W, Xu J, Raymond KN. Novel sorbents for removal of gadolinium-based contrast agents in sorbent dialysis and hemoperfusion: Preventive approaches to nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Nanomedicine 2010; 6: 1–8.
- 66 Lee CJ, Hsu ST. Preparation of spherical encapsulation of activated carbons and their adsorption capacity of typical uremic toxins. J Biomed Mater Res 1990; 24: 243–258.
- 67 Tijssen J, Bantjes A, Doorn AWJ, Feijen J, Dijk B, Vonk CR, Dijkhuis IC. A hemoperfusion column based on activated carbon granules coated with an ultrathin membrane of cellulose acetate. Artif Org 1979; 3: 11–14.
- 68 Stamatialis DF, Papenburg BJ, Gironés M, Saiful S, Bettahalli SNM, Schmitmeier S, Wessling M. Medical applications of membranes: Drug delivery, artificial organs and tissue engineering. J Membr Sci 2008; 308: 1–34.
- 69 Bastús NG, Casals E, Vázquez-Campos S, Puntes V. Reactivity of engineered inorganic nanoparticles and carbon nanostructures in biological media. Nanotoxicology 2008; 2: 99–112.
- 70 Cataldo F, da Ros T. Medicinal chemistry and pharmacological potential of fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2008.
- 71 Mikhalovsky SV. Emerging technologies in extracorporeal treatment: Focus on adsorption. Perfusion 2003; 18(1 suppl): 47–54.
- 72 Andrade J, Kunitomo K, Wagenen VR, Kastigir B, Gough D, Kolff W. Coated adsorbents for direct blood perfusion: Hema/activated carbon. ASAIO J 1971; 17: 222–228.
- 73 Haghseresht F, Nouri S, Finnerty J, Lu G. Effects of surface chemistry on aromatic compound adsorption from dilute aqueous solutions by activated carbon. J Phys Chem B 2002; 106: 10935–10943.
- 74
Bansal RC,
Goyal M. Activated Carbon Adsorption. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC press; 2005.
10.1201/9781420028812 Google Scholar
- 75 Fine D, Grattoni A, Goodall R, Bansal SS, Chiappini C, Hosali S, van de Ven AL, Srinivasan S, Liu X, Godin B, Brousseau L, Yazdi IK, Fernandez-Moure J, Tasciotti E, Wu HJ, Hu Y, Klemm S, Ferrari M. Silicon micro- and nanofabrication for medicine. Adv Healthcare Mater 2013; 2(5): 632–666.
- 76 Liao YT, Wu KCW, Yu J. Synthesis of mesoporous silica nanoparticle-encapsulated alginate microparticles for sustained release and targeting therapy. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 2014; 102: 293–302.
- 77 Urata C, Yamada H, Wakabayashi R, Aoyama Y, Hirosawa S, Arai S, Takeoka S, Yamauchi Y, Kuroda K. Aqueous colloidal mesoporous nanoparticles with ethenylene-bridged silsesquioxane frameworks. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133: 8102–8105.
- 78 Yu T, Malugin A, Ghandehari H. Impact of silica nanoparticle design on cellular toxicity and hemolytic activity. ACS Nano 2011; 5: 5717–5728.
- 79 Wolf A, Remp DG, Kiley JE, Currie GD. Artificial kidney function: Kinetics of hemodialysis. J Clin Investig 1951; 30: 1062.
- 80 Schreiner GE. The role of hemodialysis (artificial kidney) in acute poisoning. Arch Intern Med 1958; 102: 896.
- 81 Henderson LW. Symptomatic hypotension during hemodialysis. Kidney Int 1980; 17: 571–576.
- 82 Humes HD, Buffington D, Westover AJ, Roy S, Fissell WH. The bioartificial kidney: Current status and future promise. Pediatr Nephrol 2014; 29: 343–351.
- 83
Mulder M. Basic principles of membrane technology. Netherlands: Springer; 1996.
10.1007/978-94-009-1766-8 Google Scholar
- 84 Blaney TL, Lindan O, Sparks RE. Adsorption: A step toward a wearable artificial kidney. ASAIO J 1966; 12: 7.
- 85 Ronco C, Davenport A, Gura V. The future of the artificial kidney: Moving toward wearable and miniaturized devices. Nefrología (Madrid) 2011; 31: 9–16.
- 86 Kim JC, Ronco C. Personal daily dialysis: The evolution of the artificial kidney. Blood Purif 2013; 36: 47–51.
- 87 Winchester JF, Ronco C. Sorbent augmented hemodialysis systems: Are we there yet? J Am Soc Nephrol 2010; 21: 209.
- 88 Roberts M. The regenerative dialysis (REDY) sorbent system. Nephrology 1998; 4: 275–278.
- 89 Blumenkrantz MJ, Gordon A, Roberts M, Lewin AJ, Peeker EA, Moran JK, Coburn JW, Maxwell MH. Applications of the Redy® sorbent system to hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Artif Org 1979; 3: 230–236.
- 90 Stefoni S, Coli L, Feliciangeli G, Baldrati L, Bonomini V. Regular hemoperfusion in regular dialysis treatment. A long-term study. Int J Artif Org 1980; 3: 348.
- 91 Willis RR, Bem DS, Ellig DL. Process and composition for removing toxins from bodily fluids. U.S. Patent No. 6,579,460; 2003.
