To account for the rise of anti-Semitism in the west in the modern period we can turn to the evolution and popularization of its four principal roots. The four roots – religious, racial, economic, and political – contain four distinct anti-Semitic narratives, each of which entailed its own set of themes depicting Jewish malfeasance. Anti-Semitism in the years prior to 1870 was characterized by a dislike based primarily on religious differences and perceived Jewish economic practices. After 1870, both religious and economic anti-Semitism continued – albeit with new themes – and were joined by the rising racial and political strains.