Chapter 18
Factors Affecting Multilingual Processing
Edalat Shekari,
John W. Schwieter,
Edalat Shekari
Search for more papers by this authorJohn W. Schwieter
Search for more papers by this authorEdalat Shekari,
John W. Schwieter,
Edalat Shekari
Search for more papers by this authorJohn W. Schwieter
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):John W. Schwieter,
Michel Paradis,
John W. Schwieter
Search for more papers by this authorMichel Paradis
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
This chapter reviews the relationship between working memory (WM) resources, language processing, and performance along with other identified factors that affect multilingual processing: language proficiency, second language (L2) age of acquisition, exposure and language use, processing speed, and language typology and language status. WM has been demonstrated to have a role in first language (L1) and L2 vocabulary learning, reading and listening comprehension, oral and written proficiency, learning L2 sounds, and L2 sentence processing. The degree of proficiency in a non-native language can affect language processing and performance in bi/multilinguals. The effect of speed is more robust in studies where online (real-time) and speeded techniques are employed to test processing efficiency. The linguistic relatedness between a multilingual's languages can affect language processing and can manifest in lexicon organization, phonology, morphology, syntax, morphosyntax, and parsing mechanisms.
REFERENCES
- Archila-Suerte , P. , Zevin , J. , and Hernandez , A. ( 2015 ). The effect of age of acquisition, socioeducational status, and proficiency on the neural processing of second language speech sounds . Brain and Language 141 : 35 – 49 .
- Babcock , L. , Stowe , J. , Maloof , C. et al. ( 2012 ). The storage and composition of inflected forms in adult-learned second language: a study of the influence of length of residence, age of arrival, sex and other factors . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15 ( 4 ): 820 – 840 .
- Baddeley , A. ( 2003 ). Working memory and language: an overview . Journal of Communication Disorders 36 ( 3 ): 189 – 208 .
-
Baddeley , A.
(
2007
).
Working Memory, Thought, and Action
.
Oxford, UK
:
Oxford University Press
.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198528012.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Baddeley , A. ( 2012 ). Working memory: theories, models, and controversies . Annual Review of Psychology 63 : 1 – 29 .
-
Baddeley , A.
and
Hitch , G.
(
1974
).
Working memory
. In:
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
(ed.
G. Bower
),
47
–
89
.
New York, NY
:
Academic Press
.
10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1 Google Scholar
- Bel , A. , Sagarra , N. , Comínguez , J. , and García-Alcaraz , E. ( 2016 ). Transfer and proficiency effects in L2 processing of subject anaphora . Lingua 184 : 134 – 159 .
- Bloch , C. , Kaiser , A. , Kuenzli , E. et al. ( 2009 ). The age of second language acquisition determines the variability in activation elicited by narration in three languages in Broca's and Wernicke's area . Neuropsychologia 47 ( 3 ): 625 – 633 .
- Brandt , S. , Nitschke , S. , and Kidd , E. ( 2017 ). Priming the comprehension of German object relative clauses . Language Learning and Development 13 ( 3 ): 241 – 261 .
- Briellmann , R. , Saling , M. , Connell , A. et al. ( 2004 ). A high-field functional MRI study of quadri-lingual subjects . Brain and Language 89 ( 3 ): 531 – 542 .
- Caffarra , S. , Molinaro , N. , Davidson , D. , and Carreiras , M. ( 2015 ). Second language syntactic processing revealed through event-related potentials: an empirical review . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 51 : 31 – 47 .
- Caplan , D. and Waters , G.S. ( 1999 ). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension . Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22 ( 1 ): 77 – 94 .
- Caplan , D. and Waters , G. ( 2005 ). The relationship between age, processing speed, working memory capacity, and language comprehension . Memory 13 ( 3–4 ): 403 – 413 .
- Carrasco-Ortíz , H. , Herrera , A. , Jackson-Maldonado , D. et al. ( 2017 ). The role of language similarity in processing second language morphosyntax: evidence from ERPs . International Journal of Psychophysiology 117 : 91 – 110 .
- Christiansen , M. and Chater , N. ( 2016 ). Creating Language: Integrating Evolution, Acquisition, and Processing , 169 – 196 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
- Clahsen , H. and Felser , C. ( 2006 ). Grammatical processing in language learners . Applied PsychoLinguistics 27 ( 1 ): 3 – 42 .
- Conway , A. , Kane , M. , Bunting , M. et al. ( 2005 ). Working memory span tasks: a methodological review and user's guide . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12 ( 5 ): 769 – 786 .
- Coughlin , C. and Tremblay , A. ( 2013 ). Proficiency and working memory based explanations for nonnative speakers' sensitivity to agreement in sentence processing . Applied PsychoLinguistics 34 ( 3 ): 615 – 646 .
- Cowan , N. ( 2001 ). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity . Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24 : 87 – 185 .
- Cunnings , I. ( 2017 ). Parsing and working memory in bilingual sentence processing . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20 ( 4 ): 659 – 678 .
-
Dai , Y.
(
2015
).
Working memory in L2 sentence processing: the case with relative clause attachment
. In:
Working Memory in Second Language Acquisition and Processing
(ed.
Z. Wen
,
M. Mota
and
A. McNeil
),
105
–
124
.
Bristol, UK
:
Multilingual Matters
.
10.21832/9781783093595-010 Google Scholar
- Daneman , M. and Carpenter , P. ( 1980 ). Individual differences in working memory and reading . Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19 ( 4 ): 450 – 466 .
-
Daneman , M.
and
Hannon , B.
(
2007
).
What do working memory span tasks like reading span really measure?
In:
The Cognitive Neuroscience of Working Memory
(ed.
N. Osaka
,
R. Logie
and
M. D'Esposito
),
21
–
42
.
Oxford, UK
:
Oxford University Press
.
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198570394.003.0002 Google Scholar
- D'Anselmo , A. , Reiterer , S. , Zuccarini , F. et al. ( 2013 ). Hemispheric asymmetries in bilinguals: tongue similarity affects lateralization of second language . Neuropsychologia 51 ( 7 ): 1187 – 1194 .
- De Bleser , R. , Dupont , P. , Postler , J. et al. ( 2003 ). The organisation of the bilingual lexicon: a PET study . Journal of Neurolinguistics 16 ( 4 ): 439 – 456 .
-
de Bot , K.
(
2012
).
Rethinking multilingual processing: from a static to a dynamic approach
. In:
Third Language Acquisition in Adulthood
(ed.
S. Flynn
,
J. Rothman
and
J. Cabrelli Amara
),
79
–
93
.
Amsterdam, The Netherlands/Philadelphia, PA
:
Benjamins
.
10.1075/sibil.46.07bot Google Scholar
- de Bot , K. and Jaensch , C. ( 2015 ). What is special about L3 processing? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 18 ( 2 ): 130 – 144 .
- de Bot , K. , Lowie , W. , and Verspoor , M. ( 2007 ). A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10 ( 1 ): 7 – 21 .
- DeKeyser , R. ( 2013 ). Age effects in second language learning: stepping stones toward better understanding . Language Learning 63 : 52 – 67 .
-
DeKeyser , R.
(
2017
).
Age in learning and teaching grammar
. In:
The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching
(ed.
J.I. Liontas
),
1
–
6
.
Wiley-Blackwell
.
10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0106 Google Scholar
- Deng , T. , Dunlap , S. , and Chen , B. ( 2017 ). Effects of input training on second language syntactic representation entrenchment . International Journal of Bilingualism 21 ( 1 ): 3 – 20 .
- Dussias , P. and Piñar , P. ( 2010 ). Effects of reading span and plausibility in the reanalysis of wh-gaps by Chinese-English second language speakers . Second Language Research 26 ( 4 ): 443 – 472 .
- Dussias , P. and Sagarra , N. ( 2007 ). The effect of exposure on syntactic parsing in Spanish-English bilinguals . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 10 ( 1 ): 101 – 116 .
- Engle , R. ( 2001 ). What is working memory capacity? In: The Nature of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Robert G. Crowder (ed. H. Roediger , J. Nairne , I. Neath and A. Suprenant ), 297 – 314 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
-
Farmer , T.
,
Fine , A.
,
Misyak , J.
, and
Christiansen , M.
(
2017
).
Reading span task performance, linguistic experience, and the processing of unexpected syntactic events
.
The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
70
(
3
):
413
–
433
.
10.1080/17470218.2015.1131310 Google Scholar
- Felser , C. and Roberts , L. ( 2007 ). Processing wh-dependencies in a second language: a cross-modal priming study . Second Language Research 23 ( 1 ): 9 – 36 .
-
Foote , R.
(
2009
).
Transfer in L3 acquisition: the role of typology
. In:
Third Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar
(ed.
Y. Leung
),
89
–
114
.
Bristol, UK
:
Multilingual Matters
.
10.21832/9781847691323-008 Google Scholar
-
Frenck-Mestre , C.
(
2002
).
An on-line look at sentence processing in the second language
.
Advances in Psychology
134
:
217
–
236
.
10.1016/S0166-4115(02)80012-7 Google Scholar
- Gathercole , S. and Baddeley , A. ( 1993 ). Phonological working memory: a critical building block for reading development and vocabulary acquisition? European Journal of Psychology of Education 8 ( 3 ): 259 – 272 .
-
Green , D.
(
1998
).
Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system
.
Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
1
(
2
):
67
–
81
.
10.1017/S1366728998000133 Google Scholar
-
Harrington , M.
and
Sawyer , M.
(
1992
).
L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill
.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition
14
(
1
):
25
–
38
.
10.1017/S0272263100010457 Google Scholar
- Havik , E. , Roberts , L. , Van Hout , R. et al. ( 2009 ). Processing subject-object ambiguities in the L2: a self-paced reading study with German L2 learners of Dutch . Language Learning 59 ( 1 ): 73 – 112 .
- Hopp , H. ( 2010 ). Ultimate attainment in L2 inflection: performance similarities between non-native and native speakers . Lingua 120 ( 4 ): 901 – 931 .
- Hopp , H. ( 2014 ). Working memory effects in the L2 processing of ambiguous relative clauses . Language Acquisition 21 : 250 – 278 .
- Hopp , H. ( 2016 ). Learning (not) to predict: grammatical gender processing in second language acquisition . Second Language Research 32 ( 2 ): 277 – 307 .
- Hummel , K. ( 2009 ). Aptitude, phonological memory, and second language proficiency in nonnovice adult learners . Applied PsychoLinguistics 30 ( 2 ): 225 – 249 .
- Jeong , H. , Sugiura , M. , Sassa , Y. et al. ( 2007 ). Effect of syntactic similarity on cortical activation during second language processing: a comparison of English and Japanese among native Korean trilinguals . Human Brain Mapping 28 ( 3 ): 194 – 204 .
- Juffs , A. and Harrington , M. ( 2011 ). Aspects of working memory in L2 learning . Language Teaching 44 ( 2 ): 137 – 166 .
- Just , M. and Carpenter , P. ( 1992 ). A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory . Psychological Review 99 ( 1 ): 122 – 149 .
- Just , M. , Carpenter , P. , and Keller , A. ( 1996 ). The capacity theory of comprehension: new frontiers of evidence and arguments . Psychological Review 103 ( 4 ): 773 – 780 .
- Keating , G. ( 2017 ). L2 proficiency matters in comparative L1/L2 processing research . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20 ( 4 ): 700 – 701 .
- Kim , J. and Christianson , K. ( 2017 ). Working memory effects on L1 and L2 processing of ambiguous relative clauses by Korean L2 learners of English . Second Language Research 33 ( 3 ): 365 – 388 .
- Kim , S. , Qi , T. , Feng , X. et al. ( 2016 ). How does language distance between L1 and L2 affect the L2 brain network? An fMRI study of Korean-Chinese-English trilinguals . NeuroImage 129 : 25 – 39 .
- Kormos , J. and Sáfár , A. ( 2008 ). Phonological short-term memory, working memory and foreign language performance in intensive language learning . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 11 ( 2 ): 261 – 271 .
- Kroll , J. , Bobb , S. , and Wodniecka , Z. ( 2006 ). Language selectivity is the exception, not the rule: arguments against a fixed locus of language selection in bilingual speech . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 9 ( 2 ): 119 – 135 .
- Kroll , J. , Dussias , P. , Bice , K. , and Perrotti , L. ( 2015 ). Bilingualism, mind, and brain . Annual Review of Linguistics 1 ( 1 ): 377 – 394 .
- Kroll , J. , Dussias , P. , Bogulski , C. , and Valdes Kroff , J. ( 2012 ). Juggling two languages in one mind: what bilinguals tell us about language processing and its consequences for cognition . In: The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (ed. B. Ross ), 229 – 262 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
-
Kroll , J.F.
and
Ma , F.
(
2017
).
The bilingual lexicon
. In:
The Handbook of Psycholinguistics
(ed.
E.M. Fernández
and
H.S. Cairns
),
294
–
319
.
Hoboken, NJ
:
Wiley
.
10.1002/9781118829516.ch13 Google Scholar
- Liang , L. and Chen , B. ( 2014 ). Processing morphologically complex words in second-language learners: the effect of proficiency . Acta Psychologica 150 : 69 – 79 .
-
Linck , J.
,
Michael , E.
,
Golonka , E.
et al. (
2015
).
Moving beyond two languages: the effects of multilingualism on language processing and language learning
. In:
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Processing
(ed.
J.W. Schwieter
),
665
–
694
.
Cambridge, UK
:
Cambridge University Press
.
10.1017/CBO9781107447257.030 Google Scholar
- Linck , J. , Osthus , P. , Koeth , J. , and Bunting , M. ( 2014 ). Working memory and second language comprehension and production: a meta-analysis . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 21 ( 4 ): 861 – 883 .
- Liu , H. , Dunlap , S. , Tang , Y. et al. ( 2017 ). The modulatory role of L1 and L2 morphosyntactic similarity during production of L2 inflected words: an ERP study . Journal of Neurolinguistics 42 : 109 – 123 .
-
Llama , R.
,
Cardoso , W.
, and
Collins , L.
(
2010
).
The influence of language distance and language status on the acquisition of L3 phonology
.
International Journal of Multilingualism
7
(
1
):
39
–
57
.
10.1080/14790710902972255 Google Scholar
-
Lowie , W.
and
de Bot , K.
(
2015
).
Variability in bilingual processing
. In:
The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Processing
(ed.
J.W. Schwieter
),
234
–
254
.
Cambridge, UK
:
Cambridge University Press
.
10.1017/CBO9781107447257.011 Google Scholar
-
Lu , Y.
(
2015
).
Working memory, cognitive resources and L2 writing performance
. In:
Working Memory in Second Language Acquisition and Processing
(ed.
Z. Wen
,
M. Mota
and
A. McNeil
),
175
–
188
.
Bristol, UK
:
Multilingual Matters
.
10.2307/jj.26931951.16 Google Scholar
- MacDonald , M. , Just , M. , and Carpenter , P. ( 1992 ). Working memory constraints on the processing of syntactic ambiguity . Cognitive Psychology 24 ( 1 ): 56 – 98 .
- Mackey , A. , Adams , R. , Stafford , C. , and Winke , P. ( 2010 ). Exploring the relationship between modified output and working memory capacity . Language Learning 60 ( 3 ): 501 – 533 .
- Martin , K. and Ellis , N. ( 2012 ). The roles of phonological STM and working memory in L2 grammar and vocabulary learning . Studies in Second Language Acquisition 34 ( 3 ): 379 – 413 .
- McDonald , J. ( 2006 ). Beyond the critical period: processing-based explanations for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners . Journal of Memory and Language 55 ( 3 ): 381 – 401 .
- McDonald , J. ( 2008 ). Differences in the cognitive demands of word order, plural, and subject-verb agreement constructions . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 15 ( 5 ): 980 – 984 .
- McLaughlin , J. , Tanner , D. , Pitkänen , I. et al. ( 2010 ). Brain potentials reveal discrete stages of L2 grammatical learning . Language Learning 60 ( 2 ): 123 – 150 .
- Medina , A. , Callender , A. , Brantmeier , C. , and Schultz , L. ( 2017 ). Inserted adjuncts, working memory capacity, and L2 reading . System 66 : 69 – 86 .
- Meschyan , G. and Hernandez , A. ( 2006 ). Impact of language proficiency and orthographic transparency on bilingual word reading: an fMRI investigation . NeuroImage 29 ( 4 ): 1135 – 1140 .
- Mitchell , D. , Cuetos , F. , Corley , M. , and Brysbaert , M. ( 1995 ). Exposure-based models of human parsing: evidence for the use of coarse-grained (nonlexical) statistical records . Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 24 ( 6 ): 469 – 488 .
- Morgan-Short , K. , Finger , I. , Grey , S. , and Ullman , M. ( 2012 ). Second language processing shows increased native-like neural responses after months of no exposure . PLoS One 7 ( 3 ): e32974 .
- Morgan-Short , K. , Sanz , C. , Steinhauer , K. , and Ullman , M. ( 2010 ). Second language acquisition of gender agreement in explicit and implicit training conditions: an event-related potential study . Language Learning 60 ( 1 ): 154 – 193 .
- Muñoz , C. ( 2008 ). Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning . Applied Linguistics 29 ( 4 ): 578 – 596 .
- O'brien , I. , Segalowitz , N. , Collentine , J. , and Freed , B. ( 2006 ). Phonological memory and lexical, narrative, and grammatical skills in second language oral production by adult learners . Applied PsychoLinguistics 27 ( 3 ): 377 – 402 .
- Osaka , M. and Osaka , N. ( 1992 ). Language-independent working memory as measured by Japanese and English reading span tests . Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 30 ( 4 ): 287 – 289 .
- Osaka , M. , Osaka , N. , and Groner , R. ( 1993 ). Language-independent working memory: evidence from German and French reading span tests . Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 31 ( 2 ): 117 – 118 .
- Park-Johnson , S. ( 2017 ). Crosslinguistic influence of wh-in-situ questions by Korean-English bilingual children . International Journal of Bilingualism 21 ( 4 ): 419 – 432 .
- Perani , D. and Abutalebi , J. ( 2005 ). The neural basis of first and second language processing . Current Opinion in Neurobiology 15 ( 2 ): 202 – 206 .
- Perani , D. , Paulesu , E. , Santesteban Galles , N. et al. ( 1998 ). The bilingual brain: proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language . Brain 121 ( 10 ): 1841 – 1852 .
- Pliatsikas , C. and Marinis , T. ( 2013 ). Processing of regular and irregular past tense morphology in highly proficient second language learners of English: a self-paced reading study . Applied PsychoLinguistics 34 ( 5 ): 943 – 970 .
- Reichle , R. , Tremblay , A. , and Coughlin , C. ( 2016 ). Working memory capacity in L2 processing . Probus 28 ( 1 ): 29 – 55 .
- Roberts , L. ( 2012 ). Individual differences in second language sentence processing . Language Learning 62 : 172 – 188 .
- Roncaglia-Denissen , M. and Kotz , S. ( 2016 ). What does neuroimaging tell us about morphosyntactic processing in the brain of second language learners? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19 ( 4 ): 665 – 673 .
- Rossi , E. , Diaz , M. , Kroll , J. , and Dussias , P. ( 2017 ). Late bilinguals are sensitive to unique aspects of second language processing: evidence from clitic pronouns word-order . Frontiers in Psychology 8 : 342 .
- Sagarra , N. ( 2017 ). Longitudinal effects of working memory on L2 grammar and reading abilities . Second Language Research 33 ( 30 ): 341 – 363 .
- Sagarra , N. and Herschensohn , J. ( 2010 ). The role of proficiency and working memory in gender and number agreement processing in L1 and L2 Spanish . Lingua 120 ( 8 ): 2022 – 2039 .
- Sakai , K. , Nauchi , A. , Tatsuno , Y. et al. ( 2009 ). Distinct roles of left inferior frontal regions that explain individual differences in second language acquisition . Human Brain Mapping 30 ( 8 ): 2440 – 2452 .
- Schmid , M. ( 2016 ). First language attrition . Language Teaching 49 ( 2 ): 186 – 212 .
- Service , E. ( 1992 ). Phonology, working memory, and foreign-language learning . The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 45 ( 1 ): 21 – 50 .
-
Service , E.
(
2012
).
Working memory in second language acquisition: phonological short-term
. In:
The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
(ed.
C. Chappelle
).
Wiley-Blackwell
.
10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal1287 Google Scholar
- Service , E. , Simola , M. , Metsaenheimo , O. , and Maury , S. ( 2002 ). Bilingual working memory span is affected by language skill . European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 14 : 383 – 407 .
- Shekari , E. and Service , E. ( 2016 ). Native-like L2 processing, a possibility in proficient late bilinguals . Paper presented at the Psycholinguistics Shorts (PsychoShorts) conference. University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Canada .
- Shekari , E. and Service , E. ( 2017a ). Working memory capacity as the predictor of L2 processing and task performance in bilinguals . Paper presented at the 2017 Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States (LACUS) conference. McMaster University , Hamilton, Canada .
- Shekari , E. and Service , E. ( 2017b ). Processing Syntactically Complex Sentences in Skilled Late Adult Bilinguals . Poster presented at the TESL Canada conference 2017, Niagara Falls, Canada .
- Silva , R. and Clahsen , H. ( 2008 ). Morphologically complex words in L1 and L2 processing: evidence from masked priming experiments in English . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 11 ( 2 ): 245 – 260 .
-
Szubko-Sitarek , W.
(
2015
).
Multilingual Lexical Recognition in the Mental Lexicon of Third Language Users
.
New York, NY
:
Springer
.
10.1007/978-3-642-32194-8 Google Scholar
- Tanner , D. , Inoue , K. , and Osterhout , L. ( 2014 ). Brain-based individual differences in online L2 grammatical comprehension . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 17 ( 2 ): 277 – 293 .
- Tolentino , L. and Tokowicz , N. ( 2011 ). Across languages, space, and time: a review of the role of cross-language similarity in L2 (Morpho) syntactic processing as revealed by fMRI and ERP methods . Studies in Second Language Acquisition 33 ( 1 ): 91 – 125 .
- Turner , M. and Engle , R. ( 1989 ). Is working memory capacity task dependent? Journal of Memory and Language 28 ( 2 ): 127 – 154 .
- Ullman , M. ( 2004 ). Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative/procedural model . Cognition 92 : 231 – 270 .
- Ullman , M. ( 2005 ). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on second language acquisition: the declarative/procedural model . In: Processing Approaches to Adult SLA: Theory and Practice (ed. C. Sanz ), 141 – 178 . Washington, DC : Georgetown University Press .
- Ullman , M. ( 2012 ). The declarative/procedural model . In: Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition (ed. P. Robinson ), 135 – 158 . New York, NY : Routledge .
- Unsworth , N. and Engle , R. ( 2007 ). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory . Psychological Review 114 : 104 – 132 .
- Unsworth , N. , Heitz , R. , Schrock , J. , and Engle , R. ( 2005 ). An automated version of the operation span task . Behavior Research Methods 37 ( 3 ): 498 – 505 .
- Unsworth , N. , Redick , T. , Heitz , R. et al. ( 2009 ). Complex working memory span tasks and higher-order cognition: a latent-variable analysis of the relationship between processing and storage . Memory 17 ( 6 ): 635 – 654 .
- van den Noort , M. , Bosch , P. , and Hugdahl , K. ( 2006 ). Foreign language proficiency and working memory capacity . European Psychologist 11 ( 4 ): 289 – 296 .
-
van den Noort , M.
,
Struys , E.
,
Kim , K.
et al. (
2014
).
Multilingual processing in the brain
.
International Journal of Multilingualism
11
(
2
):
182
–
201
.
10.1080/14790718.2013.791298 Google Scholar
- van Hell , J. and Tokowicz , N. ( 2010 ). Event-related brain potentials and second language learning: syntactic processing in late L2 learners at different L2 proficiency levels . Second Language Research 26 ( 1 ): 43 – 74 .
-
Waters , G.
and
Caplan , D.
(
1996
).
The measurement of verbal working memory capacity and its relation to reading comprehension
.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
59
(
1
):
51
–
75
.
10.1080/713755607 Google Scholar
- Waters , G. and Caplan , D. ( 2002 ). Working memory and online syntactic processing in Alzheimer's disease: studies with auditory moving window presentation . The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 57 ( 4 ): 298 – 311 .
- Wattendorf , E. and Festman , J. ( 2008 ). Images of the multilingual brain: the effect of age of second language acquisition . Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 28 : 3 – 24 .
- Wattendorf , E. , Festman , J. , Westermann , B. et al. ( 2014 ). Early bilingualism influences early and subsequently later acquired languages in cortical regions representing control functions . International Journal of Bilingualism 18 ( 1 ): 48 – 66 .
- Wells , J. , Christiansen , M. , Race , D. et al. ( 2009 ). Experience and sentence processing: statistical learning and relative clause comprehension . Cognitive Psychology 58 ( 2 ): 250 – 271 .
- White , E. , Titone , D. , Genesee , F. , and Steinhauer , K. ( 2017 ). Phonological processing in late second language learners: the effects of proficiency and task . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20 ( 1 ): 162 – 183 .
- Williams , J. ( 2006 ). Incremental interpretation in second language sentence processing . Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 9 ( 1 ): 71 – 88 .
- Williams , J. ( 2012 ). Working memory and SLA . In: Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (ed. S. Gass and A. Mackey ), 427 – 441 . New York, NY : Routledge .
