Chapter 9
Empirically Supported Conceptualizations and Treatments of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Jonathan D. Green,
Brian P. Marx,
Terence M. Keane,
Jonathan D. Green
Search for more papers by this authorBrian P. Marx
Search for more papers by this authorTerence M. Keane
Search for more papers by this authorJonathan D. Green,
Brian P. Marx,
Terence M. Keane,
Jonathan D. Green
Search for more papers by this authorBrian P. Marx
Search for more papers by this authorTerence M. Keane
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):Dean McKay,
Jonathan S. Abramowitz,
Eric A. Storch,
Dean McKay
Search for more papers by this authorJonathan S. Abramowitz
Search for more papers by this authorEric A. Storch
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 16 March 2017
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of evidence-based conceptualizations of and treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), noting the relative strengths and weaknesses of the different models and approaches. It discusses the ways in which these approaches run contrary to some common clinical lore and explores many approaches to treating PTSD. Cognitive processing is at the heart of cognitive processing therapy (CPT). The primary focus of the treatment is helping clients to challenge “stuck points”, which are assimilated beliefs about the traumatic event as well as overgeneralized beliefs that keep the client from seeing themselves, others, or the world appropriately. Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) includes cognitive processing components. Psychological debriefing is a treatment with little empirical support. This approach has been widely employed among the first-responder community and is typically used immediately following a stressful, potentially traumatic event.
References
- Aderka, I. M., Gillihan, S. J., McLean, C. P., & Foa, E. B. (2013). The relationship between posttraumatic and depressive symptoms during prolonged exposure with and without cognitive restructuring for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(3), 375–382.
- Adler, A. B., Litz, B. T., Castro, C. A., Suvak, M., Thomas, J. L., Burrell, L., … Bliese, P. D. (2008). A group randomized trial of critical incident stress debriefing provided to US peacekeepers. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(3), 253–263.
-
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( 5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 Google Scholar
- Amir, N., Stafford, J., Freshman, M. S., & Foa, E. B. (1998). Relationship between trauma narratives and trauma pathology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 385–392.
- Baker, A. H., & Siegel, M. A. (2010). Emotional freedom techniques (EFT) reduces intense fears: A partial replication and extension of Wells et al. Energy Psychology: Theory, Research & Treatment, 2, 13–30.
- Bakker, G. M. (2013). The current status of energy psychology: Extraordinary claims with less than ordinary evidence. The Clinical Psychologist, 17(3), 91–99.
- Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Becker, C. B., Zayfert, C., & Anderson, E. (2004). A survey of psychologists’ attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(3), 277–292.
- Bisson, J. I., McFarlane, A. C., Rose, S., Ruzek, J. I., & Watson, P. J. (2009). Psychological debriefing for adults. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. Cohen (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (pp. 83–105). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Black, J. L., & Keane, T. M. (1982). Implosive therapy in the treatment of combat related fears in a World War II veteran. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 13(2), 163–165.
- Bonanno, G. A., & Mancini, A. D. (2012). Beyond resilience and PTSD: Mapping the heterogeneity of responses to potential trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(1), 74–83.
- Bradley, R., Greene, J., Russ, E., Dutra, L., & Westen, D. (2005). A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(2), 214–227.
- Brewin, C. R. (2001). Memory processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 13(3), 159–163.
- Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670–686.
- Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M., & Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117(1), 210.
- Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E.A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339–376.
- Brewin, C. R., & Saunders, J. (2001). The effect of dissociation at encoding on intrusive memories for a stressful film. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74(4), 467–472.
- Brief, D. J., Rubin, A., Keane, T. M., Enggasser, J. L., Roy, M., Helmuth, E., … Rosenbloom, D. (2013). Web intervention for OEF/OIF veterans with problem drinking and PTSD symptoms: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(5), 890–900.
- Britt, T. W. (2000). The stigma of psychological problems in a work environment: Evidence from the screening of service members returning from Bosnia. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(8), 1599–1618.
- Brown, P. J., Stout, R. L., & Gannon-Rowley, J. (1998). Substance use disorder–PTSD comorbidity: Patients’ perceptions of symptom interplay and treatment issues. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 15(5), 445–448.
- Bryant, R. A., & Guthrie, R. M. (2005). Maladaptive appraisals as a risk factor for posttraumatic stress: A study of trainee firefighters. Psychological Science, 16(10), 749–752. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01608.
- Bryant, R. A., & Harvey, A. H. (1997). Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 635–644.
- Cahill, S. P., & Foa, E. B. (2007). Psychological theories of PTSD . In M. J. Friedman, T. M. Keane, & P. A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science and practice (pp. 55–77). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Callahan, R. (1985). Five minute phobia cure. Wilmington, DE: Enterprise.
- Chambless, D. L., Baker, M. J., Baucom, D. H., Beutler, L. E., Calhoun, K. S., Crits-Christoph, P., … Woody, S. R. (1998). Update on empirically validated therapies, II. The Clinical Psychologist, 51(1), 3–16.
- Chard, K. M. (2005). An evaluation of cognitive processing therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 965–971.
- Chemtob, C. M., Tolin, D. F., van der Kolk, B. A., & Pitman, R. K. (2000). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. In E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. Cohen, (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (pp. 139–154). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Classen, C. C., Palesh, O. G., Cavanaugh, C. E., Koopman, C., Kaupp, J. W., Kraemer, H. C., … & Spiegel, D. (2011). A comparison of trauma-focused and present-focused group therapy for survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3(1), 84.
- Constans, J. I., McCloskey, M. S., Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., & Mathews, A. (2004). Suppression of attentional bias in PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(2), 315–323.
- Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288.
- Davidson, P. R., & Parker, K. C. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(2), 305–316.
- De Shazer, S., Berg, I. K., Lipchik, E. V. E., Nunnally, E., Molnar, A., Gingerich, W., & Weiner-Davis, M. (1986). Brief therapy: Focused solution development. Family Process, 25(2), 207–221.
- Deykin, E. Y., Keane, T. M., Kaloupek, D., Fincke, G., Rothendler, J., Siegfried, M., & Creamer, K. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder and the use of health services. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63(5), 835–841.
-
Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (1997). Cognitive factors in persistent versus recovered post-traumatic stress disorder after physical or sexual assault: A pilot study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25(2), 147–159. doi:10.1017/S135246580001835X
10.1017/S135246580001835X Google Scholar
- Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(9), 809–829. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00181-8
- Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). A prospective investigation of the role of cognitive factors in persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(9), 1063–1084.
- D'Zurilla, T. J., & Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Problem solving and behavior modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78(1), 107–126.
- Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.
- Ehlers, A., Maercker, A., & Boos, A. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder following political imprisonment: The role of mental defeat, alienation, and perceived permanent change. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 45–55.
- Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (1998). Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(3), 508–519. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.3.508
- Ehlers, A., Mayou, R. A., & Bryant, B. (2003). Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: Results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(1), 1–10.
- Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., & Glucksman, E. (2006). Contribution of cognitive factors to the prediction of post-traumatic stress disorder, phobia and depression after motor vehicle accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(12), 1699–1716. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.11.013
- Eichenbaum, H. (1997). Declarative memory: Insights from cognitive neurobiology. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 547–572.
- Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., Kindt, M., Arntz, A., & Schouten, E. (2003). Peri-traumatic dissociation and posttraumatic stress after pregnancy loss: A prospective study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 67–78.
- Erbes, C. R., Curry, K. T., & Leskela J. (2009) Treatment presentation and adherence of Iraq/Afghanistan era veterans in outpatient care for posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Services, 6, 175–183.
- Fairbank, J. A. & Keane, T. M. (1982). Flooding for combat-related stress disorders: Assessment of anxiety reduction across traumatic memories. Behavior Therapy, 13, 499–510.
- Feinstein, D. (2012). Acupoint stimulation in treating psychological disorders: Evidence of efficacy. Review of General Psychology, 16(4), 364–380.
- Feinstein, D., & Church, D. (2010). Modulating gene expression through psychotherapy: The contribution of non-invasive somatic interventions. Review of General Psychology, 14, 283–295.
- Foa, E. B., Dancu, C. V., Hembree, E. A., Jaycox, L. H., Meadows, E. A., & Street, G. P. (1999). A comparison of exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, and their combination for reducing posttraumatic stress disorder in female assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(2), 194.
- Foa, E. B., Feske, U., Murdock, T. B., Kozak, M. J., & McCarthy, P. R. (1991). Processing of threat-related information in rape victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 156–162.
- Foa, E. B., Hein, D., Cohen, L., Miele, G., Litt, L., & Capstick, C. (2004). Promising treatments for women with comorbid PTSD and substance use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1426–1432.
- Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., Cahill, S. P., Rauch, S. A., Riggs, D. S., Feeny, N. C., & Yadin, E. (2005). Randomized trial of prolonged exposure for posttraumatic stress disorder with and without cognitive restructuring: outcome at academic and community clinics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(5), 953–964.
-
Foa, E. B., Hembree, E., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences therapist guide. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10.1093/med:psych/9780195308501.001.0001 Google Scholar
- Foa, E. B., & Jaycox, L. H. (1999). Cognitive–behavioral theory and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In D. Spiegel (Ed.), Efficacy and Cost-Effectiveness of Psychotherapy (pp. 23–61). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
- E. B. Foa, T. M. Keane, M. J. Friedman, & J. A. Cohen (Eds.). (2009). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20–35.
- Foa, E. B., McLean, C. P., Capaldi, S., & Rosenfield, D. (2013). Prolonged exposure vs supportive counseling for sexual abuse-related PTSD in adolescent girls: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 310(24), 2650–2657.
- Foa, E. B., & Meadows, E. A. (1997). Psychosocial treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder: A critical review. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 449–480.
- Foa, E. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. American Psychiatric Press Review of Psychiatry, 12, 273–303.
- Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD . New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Foa, E. B., Rothbaum, B. O., Riggs, D. S., & Murdock, T. B. (1991). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims: A comparison between cognitive–behavioral procedures and counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(5), 715–723.
- Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualization of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155–176.
- Frueh, B. C. (2013). A dilemma of logic for the VA? Psychiatric Services, 64(1), 1–2.
- Frueh, B. C., Gold, P. B., & de Arellano, M. A. (1997). Symptom overreporting in combat veterans evaluated for PTSD: Differentiation on the basis of compensation seeking status. Journal of Personality Assessment, 68(2), 369–384.
- Frueh, B. C., Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., & Buckley, T. C. (2007). US Department of Veterans Affairs disability policies for posttraumatic stress disorder: Administrative trends and implications for treatment, rehabilitation, and research. American Journal of Public Health, 97(12), 2143–2145.
- Garcia, H. A., Kelley, L. P., Rentz, T. O., & Lee, S. (2011). Pretreatment predictors of dropout from cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD in Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans. Psychological Services, 8(1), 1–11.
- Gould, M., Adler, A., Zamorski, M., Castro, C., Hanily, N., Steele, N., … Greenberg, N. (2010). Do stigma and other perceived barriers to mental health care differ across Armed Forces? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 103(4), 148–156.
- Gray, M. J., & Lombardo, T. W. (2001). Complexity of trauma narratives as an index of fragmented memory in PTSD: A critical analysis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 170–185.
- Grillon, C., & Morgan, C. A., III. (1999). Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in Gulf War veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 134–142.
- Grillon, C., Morgan, C. A., III, Davis, M., & Southwick, S. M. (1998). Effects of experimental context and explicit threat cues on acoustic startle in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 44(10), 1027–1036.
- Gros, D. F., Price, M., Yuen, E. K., & Acierno, R. (2013). Predictors of completion of exposure therapy in OEF/OIF veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 30, 1107–1113.
- Gros, D. F., Yoder, M., Tuerk, P. W., Lozano, B. E., & Acierno, R. (2011). Exposure therapy for PTSD delivered to veterans via telehealth: Predictors of treatment completion and outcome and comparison to treatment delivered in person. Behavior Therapy, 42(2), 276–283.
- Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. K. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 419–431.
- Harvey, A. G., & Bryant, R. A. (1999). A qualitative investigation of the organization of traumatic memories. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 401–405.
- Harvey, A. G., Bryant, R. A., & Rapee, R. M. (1996). Preconscious processing of threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 613–623.
- Hellawell, S. J., & Brewin, C. R. (2002). A comparison of flashbacks and ordinary autobiographical memories of trauma: Cognitive resources and behavioural observations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(10), 1143–1156.
- Hembree, E. A., Foa, E. B., Dorfan, N. M., Street, G. P., Kowalski, J., & Tu, X. (2003). Do patients drop out prematurely from exposure therapy for PTSD? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(6), 555–562.
- Herschell, A. D., Kolko, D. J., Baumann, B. L., & Davis, A. C. (2010). The role of therapist training in the implementation of psychosocial treatments: A review and critique with recommendations. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(4), 448–466.
- Hobbs, M, Mayou, R., Harrison, B., & Worlock, P. (1996). A randomised controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. British Medical Journal, 313, 1438–1439.
- Hoge, C. W., Castro, C. A., Messer, S. C., McGurk, D., Cotting, D. I., & Koffman, R. L. (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351(1), 13–22.
- Holmes, E. A., Brewin, C. R., & Hennessy, R. G. (2004). Trauma films, information processing, and intrusive memory development. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(1), 3.
- Imel, Z. E., Laska, K., Jakupcak, M., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Meta-analysis of dropout in treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(3), 394–404.
- Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York, NY: Free Press.
- Jaycox, L. H., Foa, E. B., & Morral, A. R. (1998). Influence of emotional engagement and habituation on exposure therapy for PTSD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 185–192.
- Keane, T. M. (1997) Psychological and behavioral treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman (Eds.), Treatments that work. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
- Keane, T. M. (2008, December). Recent advances in the assessment and treatment of PTSD . Paper presented at National Institutes of Health, Staff Training in Extramural Programs (STEP), Bethesda, MD.
- Keane, T. M. (2011). Responding to the psychological needs of OEF-OIF military: A commentary on progress in treatment development. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 18(1), 144–148.
- Keane, T. M., & Barlow, D. H. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder. In D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Anxiety and its disorders ( 2nd ed.; pp. 418–453). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Keane, T. M., Fairbank, J. A., Caddell, J. M., & Zimering, R. T. (1989). Implosive (flooding) therapy reduces symptoms of PTSD in Vietnam combat veterans. Behavior Therapy, 20(2), 245–260.
- Keane, T. M., & Kaloupek, D. G. (1982). Imaginal flooding in the treatment of a posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50(1), 138–140.
- Keane, T. M., Zimering, R. T., & Caddell, R. T. (1985). A behavioral formulation of PTSD in Vietnam veterans. Behavior Therapist, 8, 9–12.
- Kilpatrick, D. G., Veronen, L. J., & Best, C. L. (1985). Factors predicting psychological distress among rape victims. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake (pp. 113–141). New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
- Lang, P. J. (1979). A bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. Journal of Psychophysiology, 16, 495–512.
- Levis, D. J., & Boyd, T. L. (1979). Symptom maintenance: An infrahuman analysis and extension of the conservation of anxiety principle. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88(2), 107–120.
-
Levis, D. J., & Hare, N. (1977). A review of the theoretical rationale and empirical support for the extinction approach of implosive (flooding) therapy. Progress in Behavior Modification, 4, 299–376.
10.1016/B978-0-12-535604-6.50013-2 Google Scholar
- Litz, B., Engel, C., Bryant, R., & Papa, A. (2007). A randomized, controlled proof-of-concept trial of an Internet-based, therapist-assisted self-management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(11), 1676–1684.
- Mayou, R. A., Ehlers, A., & Hobbs, M. (2000). Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims: Three-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 176(6), 589–593.
- McCann, I. L., & Pearlman, L. A. (1990). Psychological trauma and the adult survivor: Theory, therapy, and transformation. New York, NY: Routledge.
- McDonagh, A., Friedman, M., McHugo, G., Ford, J., Sengupta, A., Mueser, K., … Descamps, M. (2005). Randomized trial of cognitive–behavioral therapy for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 515–524.
- Metzger, L. J., Orr, S. P., Berry, N. J., Ahern, C. E., Lasko, N. B., & Pitman, R. K. (1999). Physiologic reactivity to startling tones in women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(2), 347–352.
- Meyer, J. M., Farrell, N. R., Kemp, J. J., Blakey, S. M., & Deacon, B. J. (2014). Why do clinicians exclude anxious clients from exposure therapy? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 54, 49–53.
- Miller, M. W., Fogler, J., Wolf, E., Kaloupek, D., & Keane, T. (2008). The internalizing and externalizing structure of psychiatric comorbidity in combat veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 58–65.
- Monson, C. M., Schnurr, P. P., Resick, P. A., Friedman, M. J., Young-Xu, Y., & Stevens, S. P. (2006). Cognitive processing therapy for veterans with military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and clinical Psychology, 74(5), 898–907.
- Morgan, C. A., III, Grillon, C., Southwick, S. M., Davis, M., & Charney, D. S. (1995). Fear-potentiated startle in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 38(6), 378–385.
- Morganstern, K. P. (1973). Implosive therapy and flooding procedures: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 79(5), 318–334.
- Morrissey, J. P., Jackson, E. W., Ellis, A. R., Amaro, H., Brown, V. B., & Najavits, L. M. (2005). Twelve-month outcomes of trauma-informed interventions for women with co-occurring disorders. Psychiatric Services, 56(10), 1213–1222.
-
Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York, NY: Wiley.
10.1037/10802-000 Google Scholar
- Murdoch, M., Sayer, N. A., Spoont, M. R., Rosenheck, R., Noorbaloochi, S., Griffin, J. M., … Hagel, E. M. (2011). Long-term outcomes of disability benefits in US veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(10), 1072–1080.
- Murphy, R. T., Thompson, K. E., Murray, M., Rainey, Q., & Uddo, M. M. (2009). Effect of a motivation enhancement intervention on veterans’ engagement in PTSD treatment. Psychological Services, 6(4), 264–278.
- Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R.A. (2002). Dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of motor vehicle accident survivors. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 363–368.
- Najavits, L. M. (2002). Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
- Najavits, L. M., Gallop, R. J., & Weiss, R. D. (2006). Seeking safety therapy for adolescent girls with PTSD and substance use disorder: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 33(4), 453–463.
- Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & Perri, M. G. (1989). Problem-solving therapy for depression: Theory, research, and clinical guidelines. New York, NY: Wiley.
- Niles, B. L., Klunk-Gillis, J., Ryngala, D. J., Silberbogen, A. K., Paysnick, A., & Wolf, E. J. (2012). Comparing mindfulness and psychoeducation treatments for combat-related PTSD using a telehealth approach. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(5), 538–547.
- Pole, N. (2007). The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 725–746.
- Pole, N., Neylan, T. C., Best, S. R., Orr, S. P., & Marmar, C. R. (2003). Fear-potentiated startle and posttraumatic stress symptoms in urban police officers. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(5), 471–479.
- Power, K., McGoldrick, T., Brown, K., Buchanan, R., Sharp, D., Swanson, V., & Karatzias, A. (2002). A controlled comparison of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing versus exposure plus cognitive restructuring versus waiting list in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(5), 299–318.
- Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 171–177.
- Renfrey, G., & Richard Spates, C. (1994). Eye movement desensitization: A partial dismantling study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25(3), 231–239.
- Resick, P. A., Galovski, T. E., Uhlmansiek, M. O. B., Scher, C. D., Clum, G. A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 243–258.
- Resick, P. A., Monson, C. M., & Chard, K. M. (2010). Cognitive processing therapy: Veteran/military version: Therapist's manual. Washington, DC: US Department of Veterans Affairs.
- Resick, P. A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T. L., Astin, M. C., & Feuer, C. A. (2002). A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867–879.
- Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. (1993). Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims: A treatment manual (Vol. 4). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
- Richards, D. A., Lovell, K., & Marks, I. M. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Evaluation of a behavioral treatment program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 669–680.
- Rothbaum, B. O., Astin, M. C., & Marsteller, F. (2005). Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(6), 607–616.
- Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J., Engel, C. C., Foa, E. B., Shea, M. T., Chow, B. K., … Bernardy, N. (2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in women: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(8), 820–830.
- Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J., Foy, D. W., Shea, M. T., Hsier, F. Y., Lavori, P. W., … Bernardy, N. C. (2003). Randomized trial of trauma-focused group therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a Department of Veterans Affairs cooperative study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 481–489.
- Shapiro, F. (1989). Eye movement desensitization: A new treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 20(3), 211–217.
- Sijbrandij, M., Olff, M., Reitsma, J. B., Carlier, I. V., & Gersons, B. P. (2006). Emotional or educational debriefing after psychological trauma: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 189(2), 150–155.
- Sloan, D. M., & Marx, B. P. (2004). A closer examination of the structured written disclosure procedure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(2), 165–175.
- Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., Bovin, M. J., Feinstein, B. A., & Gallagher, M. W. (2012). Written exposure as an intervention for PTSD: A randomized clinical trial with motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(10), 627–635.
- Sloan, D. M., Marx, B. P., & Epstein, E. M. (2005). Further examination of the exposure model underlying the efficacy of written emotional disclosure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 549–554.
- Solomon, S. D., & Davidson, J. R. (1997). Trauma: Prevalence, impairment, service use, and cost. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58 (Suppl 9), 5–11.
- Spoont, M., Murdoch, M., Hodges, J., & Nugent, S. (2010). Treatment receipt by veterans after a PTSD diagnosis in PTSD, mental health, or general medical clinics. Psychiatric Services, 61(1), 58–63.
- Stampfl, T. G. (1970). Implosive therapy: An emphasis on covert stimulation. Learning approaches to therapeutic behavior change. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
- Stampfl, T. G. & Levis, D. J. (1967). Essentials of implosive therapy: A learning-theory-based psychodynamic behavioral therapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72, 157–163.
-
Szafranski, D. D., Talkovsky, A. M., Little, T. E., Menefee, D. S., Wanner, J. L., Gros, D. F., & Norton, P. J. (2016). Predictors of inpatient PTSD treatment noncompletion among OEF/OIF/OND veterans. Military Behavioral Health, 4(3), 269–275.
10.1080/21635781.2016.1153536 Google Scholar
- Tarrier, N., Pilgrim, H., Sommerfield, C., Faragher, B., Reynolds, M., Graham, E., & Barrowclough, C. (1999). A randomized trial of cognitive therapy and imaginal exposure in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(1), 13–18.
- Tuerk, P. W., Wangelin, B., Rauch, S. A., Dismuke, C. E., Yoder, M., Myrick, H., … Acierno, R. (2012). Health service utilization before and after evidence-based treatment for PTSD. Psychological Services, 10(4), 401–409.
- Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301–306.
- van der Kolk, B. A., Spinazzola, J., Blaustein, M. E., Hopper, J. W., Hopper, E. K., Korn, D. L., & Simpson, W. B. (2007). A randomized clinical trial of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), fluoxetine, and pill placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Treatment effects and long-term maintenance. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68(1), 37–46.
- Van Emmerik, A. A., Kamphuis, J. H., Hulsbosch, A. M., & Emmelkamp, P. M. (2002). Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: a meta-analysis. The Lancet, 360(9335), 766–771.
- van Minnen, A., Arntz, A., & Keijsers, G. (2002). Prolonged exposure in patients with chronic PTSD: Predictors of treatment outcome and dropout. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 439–457.
- Veronen, L. J., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1983). Stress management for rape victims. In D. Meichenbaum & M. E. Jaremko (Eds.), Stress reduction and prevention (pp. 341–374). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
- Vogt, D. (2011). Mental health-related beliefs as a barrier to service use for military personnel and veterans: A review. Psychiatric Services, 62(2), 135–142.
- Wells, S., Polglase, K., Andrews, H. B., Carrington, P., & Baker, A. H. (2003). Evaluation of a meridian-based intervention, emotional freedom techniques (EFT), for reducing specific phobias of small animals. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 943–966.
- Zlotnick, C., Johnson, J., & Najavits, L. M. (2009). Randomized controlled pilot study of cognitive–behavioral therapy in a sample of incarcerated women with substance use disorder and PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 40(4), 325–336.
