Miscellaneous Diseases of the Esophagus: Foreign Bodies, Physical Injury, and Systemic and Dermatological Diseases
Seth D. Crockett
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorEvan S. Dellon
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorNicholas J. Shaheen
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSeth D. Crockett
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorEvan S. Dellon
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorNicholas J. Shaheen
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Search for more papers by this authorDaniel K. Podolsky MD
President, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Professor of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorMichael Camilleri MD
Executive Dean for Development, Atherton and Winifred W. Bean Professor, Professor of Medicine, Physiology and Pharmacology, Distinguished Investigator, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJ. Gregory Fitz MD FAASLD
Executive Vice President for Academic Aff airs and Provost, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dean, Professor of Internal Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, USA
Search for more papers by this authorAnthony N. Kalloo MD
Professor of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Director, Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA
Search for more papers by this authorFergus Shanahan MD
Professor and Chair, Department of Medicine, Director, Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Cork, Ireland
Search for more papers by this authorTimothy C. Wang MD
Chief, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Silberberg Professor of Medicine, Department of Medicine and Irving Cancer Research Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
Search for more papers by this authorSummary
As the portal to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, the esophagus is susceptible to insults and injury from a variety of environmental exposures and to the effects of systemic and dermatological diseases. This chapter discusses several causes of esophageal pathology. The esophagus is the most common site of foreign body impaction in the GI tract, due to its proximal location and narrow caliber. Food is the most common cause of esophageal foreign body impaction (EFBI) in adults. Due to frequent use of high-risk medications, decreased salivation, and a higher prevalence of esophageal dysmotility, elderly patients are at increased risk for pill esophagitis. Pill esophagitis can largely be prevented with appropriate patient education. Once a corrosive injury has occurred, there is no role for inducing emesis, lavaging the esophagus, or using a neutralizing agent because these modalities have the potential to cause further mucosal damage.
References
- Abid S., Mumtaz K., Jafri W., et al. Pill-induced esophageal injury: endoscopic features and clinical outcomes. Endoscopy 2005; 37: 740.
- ASGE Standards of Practice Committee, Ikenberry S.O., Jue T.L., et al. Management of ingested foreign bodies and food impactions. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 73: 1085.
- Aslanian H., Chander B., Robert M., et al. Prospective evaluation of acute graft-versus-host disease. Dig Dis Sci 2012; 57: 720.
- Contini S., Scarpignato C. Caustic injury of the upper gastrointestinal tract: a comprehensive review. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19: 3918.
- de Wijkerslooth L.R., Vleggaar F.P., Siersema P.D. Endoscopic management of difficult or recurrent esophageal strictures. Am J Gastroenterol 2011; 106: 2080.
- Dua K.S. Expandable stents for benign esophageal disease. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2011; 21: 359, vii.
- Gurvits G.E. Black esophagus: acute esophageal necrosis syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16: 3219.
- Haque S., Genta R.M. Lymphocytic oesophagitis: clinicopathological aspects of an emerging condition. Gut 2012; 61: 1108.
- Schmidt E., Zillikens D. Pemphigoid diseases. Lancet 2013; 381: 320.
- Sperry S.L., Crockett S.D., Miller C.B., et al. Esophageal foreign-body impactions: epidemiology, time trends, and the impact of the increasing prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 74: 985.
- Mallory GK, Weiss S. Hemorrhages from lacerations of the cardiac orifice of the stomach due to vomiting. Am J Med Sci 1929; 178: 506.
- Harris JM, DiPalma JA. Clinical significance of Mallory-Weiss tears. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 2056.
- Sugawa C, Benishek D, Walt AJ. Mallory-Weiss syndrome. A study of 224 patients. Am J Surg 1983; 145: 30.
- Katz PO, Salas L. Less frequent causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1993; 22: 875.
- Faigel DO, Metz DC. Prevalence, etiology, and prognostic significance of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage in diabetic ketoacidosis. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 1.
- Silber TJ. Ipecac syrup abuse, morbidity, and mortality: isn't it time to repeal its over-the-counter status? J Adolesc Health 2005; 37: 256.
- Pikarsky AJ, Zamir G, Belzberg H, et al. Mallory-Weiss syndrome: possible link to water immersion and subsequent air flight. Am Surg 2000; 66: 1083.
- Pritikin J, Ballin R, Young H. Primal scream therapy: a new cause of Mallory-Weiss tear. Am J Med 1990; 89: 121.
- Montalvo RD, Lee M. Retrospective analysis of iatrogenic Mallory-Weiss tears occurring during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Hepatogastroenterology 1996; 43: 174.
- Takano N, Yamada A, Watabe H, et al. Single-balloon versus double-balloon endoscopy for achieving total enteroscopy: a randomized, controlled trial. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 73: 734.
- Yamada A, Watabe H, Oka S, et al. Feasibility of spiral enteroscopy in Japanese patients: study in two tertiary hospitals. Dig Endosc 2013; 25: 406.
- Kortas DY, Haas LS, Simpson WG, et al. Mallory-Weiss tear: predisposing factors and predictors of a complicated course. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 2863.
- Sato H, Takase S, Takada A. The association of esophageal hiatus hernia with Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Gastroenterol Jpn 1989; 24: 233.
- Bak-Romaniszyn L, Malecka-Panas E, Czkwianianc E, et al. Mallory-Weiss syndrome in children. Dis Esophagus 1999; 12: 65.
- Paquet KJ, Mercado-Diaz M, Kalk JF. Frequency, significance and therapy of the Mallory-Weiss syndrome in patients with portal hypertension. Hepatology 1990; 11: 879.
- Kim JW, Kim HS, Byun JW, et al. Predictive factors of recurrent bleeding in Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Korean J Gastroenterol 2005; 46: 447.
- Fujisawa N, Inamori M, Sekino Y, et al. Risk factors for mortality in patients with Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Hepatogastroenterology 2011; 58: 417.
- Chung IK, Kim EJ, Hwang KY, et al. Evaluation of endoscopic hemostasis in upper gastrointestinal bleeding related to Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Endoscopy 2002; 34: 474.
- Banerjee S, Bellamkonda S, Gumaste VV. The Blatchford score is an useful index in the management of Mallory-Weiss tear and gastrointestinal bleeding: experience from an urban community hospital. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2012; 75: 432.
- Bharucha AE, Gostout CJ, Balm RK. Clinical and endoscopic risk factors in the Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 805.
- Sugawa C, Fujita Y, Ikeda T, et al. Endoscopic hemostasis of bleeding of the upper gastrointestinal tract by local injection of ninety-eight per cent dehydrated ethanol. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1986; 162: 159.
- Bataller R, Llach J, Salmeron JM, et al. Endoscopic sclerotherapy in upper gastrointestinal bleeding due to the Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 2147.
- Laine L. Multipolar electrocoagulation versus injection therapy in the treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers. A prospective, randomized trial. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 1303.
- Myung SJ, Kim HR, Moon YS. Severe Mallory-Weiss tear after endoscopy treated by endoscopic band ligation. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 99.
- Park CH, Min SW, Sohn YH, et al. A prospective, randomized trial of endoscopic band ligation vs. epinephrine injection for actively bleeding Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 60: 22.
- Higuchi N, Akahoshi K, Sumida Y, et al. Endoscopic band ligation therapy for upper gastrointestinal bleeding related to Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Surg Endosc 2006; 20: 1431.
- Chuttani R, Barkun A, Carpenter S, et al. Endoscopic clip application devices. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 63: 746.
- Shimoda R, Iwakiri R, Sakata H, et al. Endoscopic hemostasis with metallic hemoclips for iatrogenic Mallory-Weiss tear caused by endoscopic examination. Digestive Endosc 2009; 21: 20.
- Lecleire S, Antonietti M, Iwanicki-Caron I, et al. Endoscopic band ligation could decrease recurrent bleeding in Mallory-Weiss syndrome as compared to haemostasis by hemoclips plus epinephrine. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009; 30: 399.
- Llach J, Elizalde JI, Guevara MC, et al. Endoscopic injection therapy in bleeding Mallory-Weiss syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 54: 679.
- Carsen GM, Casarella WJ, Spiegel RM. Transcatheter embolization for treatment of Mallory-Weiss tears of the esophagogastric junction. Radiology 1978; 128: 309.
- Shah AK, Banerjee D, Gambhir RP, et al. Mallory-Weiss tear: use of recombinant factor VIIa for exsanguinating bleed. Trop Gastroenterol 2009; 30: 226.
- Vial CM, Whyte RI. Boerhaave's syndrome: diagnosis and treatment. Surg Clin North Am 2005; 85: 515.
- Reeder LB, DeFilippi VJ, Ferguson MK. Current results of therapy for esophageal perforation. Am J Surg 1995; 169: 615.
- Ohri SK, Liakakos TA, Pathi V, et al. Primary repair of iatrogenic thoracic esophageal perforation and Boerhaave's syndrome. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 55: 603.
- Flynn AE, Verrier ED, Way LW, et al. Esophageal perforation. Arch Surg 1989; 124: 1211.
- Richter JE. Modern management of achalasia. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2005; 8: 275.
- Vakil N, Kadakia S, Eckardt VF. Pneumatic dilation in achalasia. Endoscopy 2003; 35: 526.
- Kang SG, Song HY, Lim MK, et al. Esophageal rupture during balloon dilation of strictures of benign or malignant causes: prevalence and clinical importance. Radiology 1998; 209: 741.
- Adam DJ, Thompson AM, Walker WS, et al. Oesophagogastrectomy for iatrogenic perforation of oesophageal and cardia carcinoma. Br J Surg 1996; 83: 1429.
- Borotto E, Gaudric M, Danel B, et al. Risk factors of oesophageal perforation during pneumatic dilatation for achalasia. Gut 1996; 39: 9.
- Gupta NM. Emergency transhiatal oesophagectomy for instrumental perforation of an obstructed thoracic oesophagus. Br J Surg 1996; 83: 1007.
- Egan JV, Baron TH, Adler DG, et al. Esophageal dilation. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 63: 755.
- Vaezi MF, Pandolfino JE, Vela MF. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis and management of achalasia. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 1238.
- Turner WW Jr. Esophageal rupture: fatal complication of balloon tamponade for acute variceal hemorrhage. Tex Med 1983; 79: 57.
- Klein H, Williamson M, Sue-Ling HM, et al. Esophageal rupture associated with the use of the Combitube. Anesth Analg 1997; 85: 937.
- Nijhof HW, Steenvoorde P, Tollenaar RA. Perforation of the esophagus caused by the insertion of an intragastric balloon for the treatment of obesity. Obes Surg 2006; 16: 667.
- Sainathan S, Andaz S. A systematic review of transesophageal echocardiography-induced esophageal perforation. Echocardiography 2013; 30: 977.
- Singh SM, d'Avila A, Singh SK, et al. Clinical outcomes after repair of left atrial-esophageal fistulas occurring after atrial fibrillation ablation procedures. Heart Rhythm 2013; 10: 1591.
- Podgaetz E, Deschamps C. Esophageal complications of catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation: a case report. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2013; 145: e9.
- Weiman DS, Walker WA, Brosnan KM, et al. Combined tracheal and esophageal trauma from gunshot wounds. South Med J 1996; 89: 208.
- Strauss DC, Tandon R, Mason RC. Distal thoracic oesophageal perforation secondary to blunt trauma: case report. World J Emerg Surg 2007; 2: 8.
- Witcombe B, Meyer D. Sword swallowing and its side effects. BMJ 2006; 333: 1285.
- Guth AA, Gouge TH, Depan HJ. Blast injury to the thoracic esophagus. Ann Thorac Surg 1991; 51: 837.
- Martin de Nicolas JL, Gamez AP, Cruz F, et al. Long tracheobronchial and esophageal rupture after blunt chest trauma: injury by airway bursting. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 62: 269.
- Cordero JA, Kuehler DH, Fortune JB. Distal esophageal rupture after external blunt trauma: report of two cases. J Trauma 1997; 42: 321.
- Cumberbatch GL, Reichl M. Oesophageal perforation: a rare complication of minor blunt trauma. J Accid Emerg Med 1996; 13: 295.
- Sams JS. Dangers of the Heimlich maneuver for esophageal obstruction. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 980.
- Morzaria S, Walton JM, MacMillan A. Inflicted esophageal perforation. J Pediatr Surg 1998; 33: 871.
- Derbes VJ, Mitchel RE. Herman Boerhaave's “Atroci nec descripti prius, morbi historia”: first translation (from original Latin, 1724) of the classic case report of rupture of the esophagus with annotations. Bull Med Libr Assoc 1955; 43: 217.
- Nehra D, Beynon J, Pye JK. Spontaneous rupture of the oesophagus (Boerhaave's syndrome). Postgrad Med J 1993; 69: 214.
- Korn O, Onate JC, Lopez R. Anatomy of the Boerhaave syndrome. Surgery 2007; 141: 222.
- Mutter D, Evrard S, Hemar P, et al. Boerhaave syndrome or spontaneous rupture of the esophagus. J Chir (Paris) 1993; 130: 231.
- Jagminas L, Silverman RA. Boerhaave's syndrome presenting with abdominal pain and right hydropneumothorax. Am J Emerg Med 1996; 14: 53.
- Kuwano H, Matsumata T, Adachi E, et al. Lack of muscularis mucosa and the occurrence of Boerhaave's syndrome. Am J Surg 1989; 158: 420.
- Cohen MS, Kaufman A, DiMarino AJ Jr, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis presenting as spontaneous esophageal rupture (Boerhaave's syndrome). Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 5: A24.
- Lucendo AJ, Friginal-Ruiz AB, Rodriguez B. Boerhaave's syndrome as the primary manifestation of adult eosinophilic esophagitis. Two case reports and a review of the literature. Dis Esophagus 2011; 24: E11.
- Straumann A, Bussmann C, Zuber M, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis: analysis of food impaction and perforation in 251 adolescent and adult patients. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 6: 598.
- Reeder LB, Warren SE, Ferguson MK. Recurrent spontaneous perforation of the esophagus. Ann Thorac Surg 1995; 59: 221.
- Brauer RB, Liebermann-Meffert D, Stein HJ, et al. Boerhaave's syndrome: analysis of the literature and report of 18 new cases. Dis Esophagus 1997; 10: 64.
- Walker WS, Cameron EW, Walbaum PR. Diagnosis and management of spontaneous transmural rupture of the oesophagus (Boerhaave's syndrome). Br J Surg 1985; 72: 204.
- Onyeka WO, Booth SJ. Boerhaave's syndrome presenting as tension pneumothorax. J Accid Emerg Med 1999; 16: 235.
- Goldstein LA, Thompson WR. Esophageal perforations: a 15 year experience. Am J Surg 1982; 143: 495.
- Lemke T, Jagminas L. Spontaneous esophageal rupture: a frequently missed diagnosis. Am Surg 1999; 65: 449.
- Pate JW, Walker WA, Cole FH Jr, et al. Spontaneous rupture of the esophagus: a 30-year experience. Ann Thorac Surg 1989; 47: 689.
- Khan AZ, Strauss D, Mason RC. Boerhaave's syndrome: diagnosis and surgical management. Surgeon 2007; 5: 39.
- Nesbitt JC, Sawyers JL. Surgical management of esophageal perforation. Am Surg 1987; 53: 183.
- de Lutio di Castelguidone E, Merola S, Pinto A, et al. Esophageal injuries: spectrum of multidetector row CT findings. Eur J Radiol 2006; 59: 344.
- DeMeester TR. Perforation of the esophagus. Ann Thorac Surg 1986; 42: 231.
- Flowers JL, Graham SM, Ugarte MA, et al. Flexible endoscopy for the diagnosis of esophageal trauma. J Trauma 1996; 40: 261.
- Good JT Jr, Antony VB, Reller LB, et al. The pathogenesis of the low pleural fluid pH in esophageal rupture. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 127: 702.
- Rockey DC, Cello JP. Pancreaticopleural fistula. Report of 7 patients and review of the literature. Medicine 1990; 69: 332.
- LoCicero J 3rd, Vanecko RM. Clostridial myonecrosis of the chest wall complicating spontaneous esophageal rupture. Ann Thorac Surg 1985; 40: 396.
- Bauer TM, Dupont V, Zimmerli W. Invasive candidiasis complicating spontaneous esophageal perforation (Boerhaave syndrome). Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 1248.
- Huber-Lang M, Henne-Bruns D, Schmitz B, et al. Esophageal perforation: principles of diagnosis and surgical management. Surg Today 2006; 36: 332.
- Weiman DS, Walker WA, Brosnan KM, et al. Noniatrogenic esophageal trauma. Ann Thorac Surg 1995; 59: 845.
- Morimoto Y, Mukai T. Spontaneous esophageal rupture treated by conservative therapy. Jpn J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2000; 48: 473.
- Liu K, Wang YJ, Cheng QS, et al. Surgical treatment of Boerhaave's syndrome: when, how and why? Dis Esophagus 1998; 11: 251.
- Biancari F, D'Andrea V, Paone R, et al. Current treatment and outcome of esophageal perforations in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis of 75 studies. World J Surg 2013; 37: 1051.
- Lawrence DR, Ohri SK, Moxon RE, et al. Primary esophageal repair for Boerhaave's syndrome. Ann Thorac Surg 1999; 67: 818.
- Whyte RI, Iannettoni MD, Orringer MB. Intrathoracic esophageal perforation. The merit of primary repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995; 109: 140.
- Wang N, Razzouk AJ, Safavi A, et al. Delayed primary repair of intrathoracic esophageal perforation: is it safe? J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1996; 111: 114.
- Bufkin BL, Miller JI Jr, Mansour KA. Esophageal perforation: emphasis on management. Ann Thorac Surg 1996; 61: 1447.
- Sawyer R, Phillips C, Vakil N. Short- and long-term outcome of esophageal perforation. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 41: 130.
- Scott HJ, Rosin RD. Thoracoscopic repair of a transmural rupture of the oesophagus (Boerhaave's syndrome). J R Soc Med 1995; 88: 414P.
- Wewalka FW, Clodi PH, Haidinger D. Endoscopic clipping of esophageal perforation after pneumatic dilation for achalasia. Endoscopy 1995; 27: 608.
- Abe N, Sugiyama M, Hashimoto Y, et al. Endoscopic nasomediastinal drainage followed by clip application for treatment of delayed esophageal perforation with mediastinitis. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 54: 646.
- Shimamoto C, Hirata I, Umegaki E, et al. Closure of an esophageal perforation due to fish bone ingestion by endoscopic clip application. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 51: 736.
- Blocksom JM, Sugawa C, Tokioka S, et al. The Hemoclip: a novel approach to endoscopic therapy for esophageal perforation. Dig Dis Sci 2004; 49: 1136.
- Gelbmann CM, Ratiu NL, Rath HC, et al. Use of self-expandable plastic stents for the treatment of esophageal perforations and symptomatic anastomotic leaks. Endoscopy 2004; 36: 695.
- Dua KS. Expandable stents for benign esophageal disease. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2011; 21: 359.
- Koivukangas V, Biancari F, Merilainen S, et al. Esophageal stenting for spontaneous esophageal perforation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012; 73: 1011.
- Swinnen J, Eisendrath P, Rigaux J, et al. Self-expandable metal stents for the treatment of benign upper GI leaks and perforations. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 73: 890.
- van Boeckel PG, Sijbring A, Vleggaar FP, et al. Systematic review: temporary stent placement for benign rupture or anastomotic leak of the oesophagus. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011; 33: 1292.
- Bona D, Aiolfi A, Rausa E, et al. Management of Boerhaave's syndrome with an over-the-scope clip. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2013; 45: 752.
- Voermans RP, Le Moine O, von Renteln D, et al. Efficacy of endoscopic closure of acute perforations of the gastrointestinal tract. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 10: 603.
- Jotte RS. Esophageal apoplexy: case report, review, and comparison with other esophageal disorders. J Emerg Med 1991; 9: 437.
- Ackert JJ, Sherman A, Lustbader IJ, et al. Spontaneous intramural hematoma of the esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 1325.
- Yeoh NT, McNicholas T, Rothwell-Jackson RL, et al. Intramural rupture and intramural haematoma of the oesophagus. Br J Surg 1985; 72: 958.
- Enns R, Brown JA, Halparin L. Intramural esophageal hematoma: a diagnostic dilemma. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 51: 757.
- Hiller N, Zagal I, Hadas-Halpern I. Spontaneous intramural hematoma of the esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 2282.
- Yamashita K, Okuda H, Fukushima H, et al. A case of intramural esophageal hematoma: complication of anticoagulation with heparin. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 559.
- McIntyre AS, Ayres R, Atherton J, et al. Dissecting intramural haematoma of the oesophagus. QJM 1998; 91: 701.
- Cheung J, Muller N, Weiss A. Spontaneous intramural esophageal hematoma: case report and review. Can J Gastroenterol 2006; 20: 285.
- Chen TA, Lo GH, Lai KH. Spontaneous rupture of iatrogenic intramural hematoma of esophagus during endoscopic sclerotherapy. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 50: 850.
- Hess U, Brucher BL, Cavallaro A, et al. Intramural esophageal hematoma after cardioversion. Dis Esophagus 1997; 10: 225.
- Huddy J, Kotecha A, Dussek J, et al. Dissecting intramural hematoma of the esophagus after thrombolysis for myocardial infarction. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 61: 340.
- Reed AR, Michell WL, Krige JE. Mechanical tracheal obstruction due to an intramural esophageal hematoma following endoscopic variceal sclerotherapy. Am Surg 2001; 67: 690.
- Hsu CC, Changchien CS. Endoscopic and radiological features of intramural esophageal dissection. Endoscopy 2001; 33: 379.
- Yen HH, Soon MS, Chen YY. Esophageal intramural hematoma: an unusual complication of endoscopic biopsy. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 62: 161.
- Ivekovic H, Ivekovic MP. Intramural esophageal hematoma: an unusual complication of endotracheal intubation. J Emerg Med 2013; 44: e89.
- Jeong ES, Kim MJ, Yoo SH, et al. Intramural hematoma of the esophagus after endoscopic pinch biopsy. Clin Endosc 2012; 45: 417.
- van Vilsteren FG, Alvarez Herrero L, Pouw RE, et al. Radiofrequency ablation for the endoscopic eradication of esophageal squamous high grade intraepithelial neoplasia and mucosal squamous cell carcinoma. Endoscopy 2011; 43: 282.
- Folan RD, Smith RE, Head JM. Esophageal hematoma and tear requiring emergency surgical intervention. A case report and literature review. Dig Dis Sci 1992; 37: 1918.
- Low DE, Patterson DJ. Complete esophageal obstruction secondary to dissecting intramural hematoma after endoscopic variceal sclerotherapy. Am J Gastroenterol 1988; 83: 435.
- Lauzon SC, Heitmiller RF. Transient esophageal obstruction in a young man: an intramural esophageal hematoma? Dis Esophagus 2005; 18: 127.
- Dallemand S, Amorosa JK, Morris DW, et al. Intramural hematomas of the esophagus. Gastrointest Radiol 1983; 8: 7.
- Steadman C, Kerlin P, Crimmins F, et al. Spontaneous intramural rupture of the oesophagus. Gut 1990; 31: 845.
- Mion F, Bernard G, Valette PJ, et al. Spontaneous esophageal hematoma: diagnostic contribution of echoendoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40: 503.
- Yuen EH, Yang WT, Lam WW, et al. Spontaneous intramural haematoma of the oesophagus: CT and MRI appearances. Australas Radiol 1998; 42: 139.
- Adachi T, Togashi H, Watanabe H, et al. Endoscopic incision for esophageal intramural hematoma after injection sclerotherapy: case report. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58: 466.
- KC S, Kouzu T, Matsutani S, et al. Early endoscopic treatment of intramural hematoma of the esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58: 297.
- Shim J, Jang JY, Hwangbo Y, et al. Recurrent massive bleeding due to dissecting intramural hematoma of the esophagus: treatment with therapeutic angiography. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15: 5232.
- Thumerel M, Rodriguez A, Lebreton G, et al. Is there a place for video-associated thoracoscopy for dissecting intramural haematoma of the oesophagus? Interact Cardiovasc Thoracic Surg 2011; 13: 356.
- Webb WA. Management of foreign bodies of the upper gastrointestinal tract: update. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 41: 39.
- Longstreth GF, Longstreth KJ, Yao JF. Esophageal food impaction: epidemiology and therapy. A retrospective, observational study. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 53: 193.
- Wu WT, Chiu CT, Kuo CJ, et al. Endoscopic management of suspected esophageal foreign body in adults. Dis Esophagus 2011; 24: 131.
- Sperry SL, Crockett SD, Miller CB, et al. Esophageal foreign-body impactions: epidemiology, time trends, and the impact of the increasing prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 74: 985.
- Cheng W, Tam PK. Foreign-body ingestion in children: experience with 1,265 cases. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34: 1472.
- Panieri E, Bass DH. The management of ingested foreign bodies in children–a review of 663 cases. Eur J Emerg Med 1995; 2: 83.
- Velitchkov NG, Grigorov GI, Losanoff JE, et al. Ingested foreign bodies of the gastrointestinal tract: retrospective analysis of 542 cases. World J Surg 1996; 20: 1001.
- Ginsberg GG. Management of ingested foreign objects and food bolus impactions. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 41: 33.
- Eisen GM, Baron TH, Dominitz JA, et al. Guideline for the management of ingested foreign bodies. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 802.
- Conway WC, Sugawa C, Ono H, et al. Upper GI foreign body: an adult urban emergency hospital experience. Surg Endosc 2007; 21: 455.
- Denney W, Ahmad N, Dillard B, et al. Children will eat the strangest things: a 10-year retrospective analysis of foreign body and caustic ingestions from a single academic center. Pediatr Emerg Care 2012; 28: 731.
- McNeill MB, Sperry SL, Crockett SD, et al. Epidemiology and management of oesophageal coin impaction in children. Dig Liver Dis 2012; 44: 482.
- Crockett SD, Sperry SL, Miller CB, et al. Emergency care of esophageal foreign body impactions: timing, treatment modalities, and resource utilization. Dis Esophagus 2013; 26: 105.
- Desai TK, Stecevic V, Chang CH, et al. Association of eosinophilic inflammation with esophageal food impaction in adults. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 61: 795.
- Connolly AA, Birchall M, Walsh-Waring GP, et al. Ingested foreign bodies: patient-guided localization is a useful clinical tool. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1992; 17: 520.
- Cass DT, Lai B. Oesophageal perforation caused by a coin. J Paediatr Child Health 1993; 29: 239.
- Burton DM, Stith JA. Extraluminal esophageal coin erosion in children. Case report and review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1992; 23: 187.
- Wu MH, Lai WW. Aortoesophageal fistula induced by foreign bodies. Ann Thorac Surg 1992; 54: 155.
- Simic MA, Budakov BM. Fatal upper esophageal hemorrhage caused by a previously ingested chicken bone: case report. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1998; 19: 166.
- Zhang X, Liu J, Li J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of 32 cases with aortoesophageal fistula due to esophageal foreign body. Laryngoscope 2011; 121: 267.
- Rajesh PB, Goiti JJ. Late onset tracheo-oesophageal fistula following a swallowed dental plate. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1993; 7: 661.
- Sharland MG, McCaughan BC. Perforation of the esophagus by a fish bone leading to cardiac tamponade. Ann Thorac Surg 1993; 56: 969.
- Gordon AC, Gough MH. Oesophageal perforation after button battery ingestion. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1993; 75: 362.
- Litovitz T, Schmitz BF. Ingestion of cylindrical and button batteries: an analysis of 2382 cases. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 747.
- Macpherson RI, Hill JG, Othersen HB, et al. Esophageal foreign bodies in children: diagnosis, treatment, and complications. Am J Roentgenol 1996; 166: 919.
- Kazam JK, Coll D, Maltz C. Computed tomography scan for the diagnosis of esophageal foreign body. Am J Emerg Med 2005; 23: 897.
- Pinto A, Muzj C, Gagliardi N, et al. Role of imaging in the assessment of impacted foreign bodies in the hypopharynx and cervical esophagus. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2012; 33: 463.
- Muensterer OJ, Joppich I. Identification and topographic localization of metallic foreign bodies by metal detector. J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39: 1245.
- Chu KM, Choi HK, Tuen HH, et al. A prospective randomized trial comparing the use of the flexible gastroscope versus the bronchoscope in the management of foreign body ingestion. Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 47: 23.
- Li ZS, Sun ZX, Zou DW, et al. Endoscopic management of foreign bodies in the upper-GI tract: experience with 1088 cases in China. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 64: 485.
- Katsinelos P, Kountouras J, Paroutoglou G, et al. Endoscopic techniques and management of foreign body ingestion and food bolus impaction in the upper gastrointestinal tract: a retrospective analysis of 139 cases. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006; 40: 784.
- Gmeiner D, von Rahden BH, Meco C, et al. Flexible versus rigid endoscopy for treatment of foreign body impaction in the esophagus. Surg Endosc 2007.
- Committee ASoP, Ikenberry SO, Jue TL, et al. Management of ingested foreign bodies and food impactions. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 73: 1085.
- Waltzman ML. Management of esophageal coins. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006; 18: 571.
- Kay M, Wyllie R. Pediatric foreign bodies and their management. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2005; 7: 212.
- Sodeman TC, Harewood GC, Baron TH. Assessment of the predictors of response to glucagon in the setting of acute esophageal food bolus impaction. Dysphagia 2004; 19: 18.
- Al-Haddad M, Ward EM, Scolapio JS, et al. Glucagon for the relief of esophageal food impaction does it really work? Dig Dis Sci 2006; 51: 1930.
- Weant KA, Weant MP. Safety and efficacy of glucagon for the relief of acute esophageal food impaction. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2012; 69: 573.
- Levine MS. How concerned should radiologists be about perforating the esophagus by administering an effervescent agent during a barium swallow to treat a foreign body impacted in the distal esophagus? Am J Roentgenol 1995; 165: 480.
- Lee J, Anderson R. Best evidence topic report. Proteolytic enzymes for oesophageal meat impaction. Emerg Med J 2005; 22: 122.
- Andersen HA, Bernatz PE, Grindlay JH. Perforation of the esophagus after use of a digestant agent: report of case and experimental study. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1959; 68: 890.
- Faigel DO, Stotland BR, Kochman ML, et al. Device choice and experience level in endoscopic foreign object retrieval: an in vivo study. Gastrointest Endosc 1997; 45: 490.
- Smith MT, Wong RK. Esophageal foreign bodies: types and techniques for removal. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2006; 9: 75.
- Committee AT, Tierney WM, Adler DG, et al. Overtube use in gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 2009; 70: 828.
- el Newihi HM, Mihas AA. Esophageal perforation as a complication of endoscopic overtube insertion. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 953.
- Nelson DB, Bosco JJ, Curtis WD, et al. ASGE technology status evaluation report. Endoscopic retrieval devices. February 1999. American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 50: 932.
- Bertoni G, Sassatelli R, Conigliaro R, et al. A simple latex protector hood for safe endoscopic removal of sharp-pointed gastroesophageal foreign bodies. Gastrointest Endosc 1996; 44: 458.
- Karjoo M, A-Kader H. A novel technique for closing and removing an open safety pin from the stomach. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 57: 627.
- Vicari JJ, Johanson JF, Frakes JT. Outcomes of acute esophageal food impaction: success of the push technique. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 53: 178.
- Pezzi JS, Shiau YF. A method for removing meat impactions from the esophagus. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40: 634.
- Sperry S, Crockett SD, Miller CB, et al. Time trends in foreign body impactions in the esophagus: what is the impact of the increasing prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis? Gastrointest Endosc 2011;74:985.
- Jaspersen D. Drug-induced oesophageal disorders: pathogenesis, incidence, prevention and management. Drug Saf 2000; 22: 237.
- Kikendall JW. Pill esophagitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 1999; 28: 298.
- Winstead NS, Bulat R. Pill esophagitis. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2004; 7: 71.
- Minocha A, Greenbaum DS. Pill-esophagitis caused by nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86: 1086.
- de Groen PC, Lubbe DF, Hirsch LJ, et al. Esophagitis associated with the use of alendronate. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1016.
- Semble EL, Wu WC, Castell DO. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and esophageal injury. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1989; 19: 99.
- Hey H, Jorgensen F, Sorensen K, et al. Oesophageal transit of six commonly used tablets and capsules. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1982; 285: 1717.
- Channer KS, Virjee JP. The effect of size and shape of tablets on their esophageal transit. J Clin Pharmacol 1986; 26: 141.
- Leong RW, Chan FK. Drug-induced side effects affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2006; 5: 585.
- Eng J, Sabanathan S. Drug-induced esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86: 1127.
- El-Serag HB, Sonnenberg A. Association of esophagitis and esophageal strictures with diseases treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 52.
- Abid S, Mumtaz K, Jafri W, et al. Pill-induced esophageal injury: endoscopic features and clinical outcomes. Endoscopy 2005; 37: 740.
- Levine MS. Radiology of esophagitis: a pattern approach. Radiology 1991; 179: 1.
- Levine MS, Borislow SM, Rubesin SE, et al. Esophageal stricture caused by a Motrin tablet (ibuprofen). Abdom Imaging 1994; 19: 6.
- Chen Z, Scudiere JR, Montgomery E. Medication-induced upper gastrointestinal tract injury. J Clin Pathol 2009; 62: 113.
- Trowers E, Thomas C Jr, Silverstein FE. Chemical- and radiation-induced esophageal injury. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 1994; 4: 657.
- de Jong AL, Macdonald R, Ein S, et al. Corrosive esophagitis in children: a 30-year review. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2001; 57: 203.
- Adam JS, Birck HG. Pediatric caustic ingestion. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1982; 91: 656.
- Riffat F, Cheng A. Pediatric caustic ingestion: 50 consecutive cases and a review of the literature. Dis Esophagus 2009; 22: 89.
- Nuutinen M, Uhari M, Karvali T, et al. Consequences of caustic ingestions in children. Acta Paediatr 1994; 83: 1200.
- Arevalo-Silva C, Eliashar R, Wohlgelernter J, et al. Ingestion of caustic substances: a 15-year experience. Laryngoscope 2006; 116: 1422.
- Kiviranta UK. Corrosion carcinoma of the esophagus; 381 cases of corrosion and nine cases of corrosion carcinoma. Acta Otolaryngol 1952; 42: 89.
- Isolauri J, Markkula H. Lye ingestion and carcinoma of the esophagus. Acta Chir Scand 1989; 155: 269.
- Hirota WK, Zuckerman MJ, Adler DG, et al. ASGE guideline: the role of endoscopy in the surveillance of premalignant conditions of the upper GI tract. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 63: 570.
- Christesen HB. Prediction of complications following caustic ingestion in adults. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1995; 20: 272.
- Christesen HB. Prediction of complications following unintentional caustic ingestion in children. Is endoscopy always necessary? Acta Paediatr 1995; 84: 1177.
- Janousek P, Jurovcik M, Grabec P, et al. Corrosive oesophagitis in children following ingestion of sodium hydroxide granules–a case report. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2005; 69: 1257.
- Gaudreault P, Parent M, McGuigan MA, et al. Predictability of esophageal injury from signs and symptoms: a study of caustic ingestion in 378 children. Pediatrics 1983; 71: 767.
- Bautista A, Varela R, Villanueva A, et al. Motor function of the esophagus after caustic burn. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1996; 6: 204.
- Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Mehta S, et al. The role of fiberoptic endoscopy in the management of corrosive ingestion and modified endoscopic classification of burns. Gastrointest Endosc 1991; 37: 165.
- Zargar SA, Kochhar R, Nagi B, et al. Ingestion of strong corrosive alkalis: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history. Am J Gastroenterol 1992; 87: 337.
- Kamijo Y, Kondo I, Soma K, et al. Alkaline esophagitis evaluated by endoscopic ultrasound. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2001; 39: 623.
-
Mitani M,
Hirata K,
Fukuda M, et al.
Endoscopic ultrasonography in corrosive injury of the upper gastrointestinal tract by hydrochloric acid.
J Clin Ultrasound
1996;
24:
40.
10.1002/(SICI)1097-0096(199601)24:1<40::AID-JCU7>3.0.CO;2-L CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
- Chen YM, Ott DJ, Thompson JN, et al. Progressive roentgenographic appearance of caustic esophagitis. South Med J 1988; 81: 724.
- Howell JM, Dalsey WC, Hartsell FW, et al. Steroids for the treatment of corrosive esophageal injury: a statistical analysis of past studies. Am J Emerg Med 1992; 10: 421.
- Bautista A, Varela R, Villanueva A, et al. Effects of prednisolone and dexamethasone in children with alkali burns of the oesophagus. Eur J Pediatr Surg 1996; 6: 198.
- Pelclova D, Navratil T. Do corticosteroids prevent oesophageal stricture after corrosive ingestion? Toxicol Rev 2005; 24: 125.
- Fulton JA, Hoffman RS. Steroids in second degree caustic burns of the esophagus: a systematic pooled analysis of fifty years of human data: 1956–2006. Clin Toxicol 2007; 45: 402.
- Anderson KD, Rouse TM, Randolph JG. A controlled trial of corticosteroids in children with corrosive injury of the esophagus. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 637.
- Baskin D, Urganci N, Abbasoglu L, et al. A standardised protocol for the acute management of corrosive ingestion in children. Pediatr Surg Int 2004; 20: 824.
- Mutaf O, Genc A, Herek O, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux: a determinant in the outcome of caustic esophageal burns. J Pediatr Surg 1996; 31: 1494.
- Cakal B, Akbal E, Koklu S, et al. Acute therapy with intravenous omeprazole on caustic esophageal injury: a prospective case series. Dis Esophagus 2013; 26: 22.
- Suarez Cortina L, Olivares de Miguel F, Camarero Salces C, et al. [Caustic esophagitis in children]. An Esp Pediatr 1992; 36: 205.
- Gun F, Abbasoglu L, Celik A, et al. Early and late term management in caustic ingestion in children: a 16-year experience. Acta Chir Belg 2007; 107: 49.
- Contini S, Scarpignato C. Caustic injury of the upper gastrointestinal tract: a comprehensive review. World J Gastroenterol 2013; 19: 3918.
- Ilkin Naharci M, Tuzun A, Erdil A, et al. Effectiveness of bougie dilation for the management of corrosive esophageal strictures. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2006; 69: 372.
- Hawkins DB. Dilation of esophageal strictures: comparative morbidity of antegrade and retrograde methods. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1988; 97: 460.
- Zhang C, Zhou X, Yu L, et al. Endoscopic therapy in the treatment of caustic esophageal stricture: a retrospective case series study. Dig Endosc 2013; 25: 490.
- Chiu YC, Liang CM, Tam W, et al. The effects of endoscopic-guided balloon dilations in esophageal and gastric strictures caused by corrosive injuries. BMC Gastroenterol 2013; 13: 99.
- Chang CF, Kuo SP, Lin HC, et al. Endoscopic balloon dilatation for esophageal strictures in children younger than 6 years: experience in a medical center. Pediatr Neonatol 2011; 52: 196.
- Rosseneu S, Afzal N, Yerushalmi B, et al. Topical application of mitomycin-C in oesophageal strictures. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2007; 44: 336.
- Nagaich N, Nijhawan S, Katiyar P, et al. Mitomycin-C: “a ray of hope” in refractory corrosive esophageal strictures. Dis Esophagus 2014; 27: 203.
- Liu J, Hu Y, Cui C, et al. Removable, fully covered, self-expandable metal stents for the treatment of refractory benign esophagogastric anastomotic strictures. Dysphagia 2012; 27: 260.
- Broto J, Asensio M, Vernet JM. Results of a new technique in the treatment of severe esophageal stenosis in children: poliflex stents. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003; 37: 203.
- Spitz L, Kiely E, Pierro A. Gastric transposition in children–a 21-year experience. J Pediatr Surg 2004; 39: 276.
- Erdogan E, Emir H, Eroglu E, et al. Esophageal replacement using the colon: a 15-year review. Pediatr Surg Int 2000; 16: 546.
- Yararbai O, Osmanodlu H, Kaplan H, et al. Esophagocoloplasty in the management of postcorrosive strictures of the esophagus. Hepatogastroenterology 1998; 45: 59.
- Ochi K, Ohashi T, Sato S, et al. Surgical treatment for caustic ingestion injury of the pharynx, larynx, and esophagus. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1996; 522: 116.
- Moreto M, Ojembarrena E, Zaballa M, et al. Idiopathic acute esophageal necrosis: not necessarily a terminal event. Endoscopy 1993; 25: 534.
- Augusto F, Fernandes V, Cremers MI, et al. Acute necrotizing esophagitis: a large retrospective case series. Endoscopy 2004; 36: 411.
- Ben Soussan E, Savoye G, Hochain P, et al. Acute esophageal necrosis: a 1-year prospective study. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 56: 213.
- Lacy BE, Toor A, Bensen SP, et al. Acute esophageal necrosis: report of two cases and a review of the literature. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 527.
- Singh D, Singh R, Laya AS. Acute esophageal necrosis: a case series of five patients presenting with "Black esophagus". Indian J Gastroenterol 2011; 30: 41.
- Goldenberg SP, Wain SL, Marignani P. Acute necrotizing esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 493.
- Haviv YS, Reinus C, Zimmerman J. "Black esophagus": a rare complication of shock. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2432.
- Reichart M, Busch OR, Bruno MJ, et al. Black esophagus: a view in the dark. Dis Esophagus 2000; 13: 311.
- Kram M, Gorenstein L, Eisen D, et al. Acute esophageal necrosis associated with gastric volvulus. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 51: 610.
- Roman Fernandez A, Lopez Alvarez A, Fossati Puertas S, et al. Black esophagus (acute esophageal necrosis) after spinal anesthesia. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim 2013.
- Usmani A, Samarany S, Nardino R, et al. Black esophagus in a patient with diabetic ketoacidosis. Conn Med 2011; 75: 467.
- Altenburger DL, Wagner AS, Li S, et al. A case of black esophagus with histopathologic description and characterization. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2011; 135: 797.
- Choi EJ, Lee SH, Lee SH. [A case of acute necrotizing esophagitis]. Korean J Gastroenterol 2010; 56: 373.
- Ishibashi Y, Matsuzono E, Goda T, et al. [Black esophagus due to acute necrotizing esophagitis: four case reports]. Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai zasshi 2011; 108: 759.
- Gurvits GE. Black esophagus: acute esophageal necrosis syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16: 3219.
- Yamauchi J, Mitsufuji S, Taniguchi J, et al. Acute esophageal necrosis followed by upper endoscopy and esophageal manometry/pH test. Dig Dis Sci 2005; 50: 1718.
- Jacobsen NO, Christiansen J, Kruse A. Incidence of oesophageal necrosis in an autopsy material. APMIS 2003; 111: 591.
- Hermet A, Lidove O, Grimbert S, et al. [Black esophagus.] Rev Med Interne 2013 Aug 12, doi: 10.1016 [epub ahead of print].
- Venara A, Pavageau AH, Maillart CR, et al. Sudden death due to black esophagus: a case report. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2013; 34: 16.
-
Pereira O,
Figueira-Coelho J,
Picado B, et al.
Black oesophagus.
BMJ Case Rep
2013;Jan 29 2013: doi: 10.1136/bcr-2012-008188.
10.1136/bcr-2012-008188 Google Scholar
- Liacouras CA, Furuta GT, Hirano I, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis: updated consensus recommendations for children and adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 128: 3.
- Dellon ES, Gonsalves N, Hirano I, et al. ACG Clinical Guideline: evidence based approach to the diagnosis and management of esophageal eosinophilia and eosinophilic esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 679.
- Miller SM, Goldstein JL, Gerson LB. Cost-effectiveness model of endoscopic biopsy for eosinophilic esophagitis in patients with refractory GERD. Am J Gastroenterol 2011; 106: 1439.
- Rubio CA, Sjodahl K, Lagergren J. Lymphocytic esophagitis: a histologic subset of chronic esophagitis. Am J Clin Pathol 2006; 125: 432.
- Cohen S, Saxena A, Waljee AK, et al. Lymphocytic esophagitis: a diagnosis of increasing frequency. J Clin Gastroenterol 2012; 46: 828.
- Haque S, Genta RM. Lymphocytic oesophagitis: clinicopathological aspects of an emerging condition. Gut 2012; 61: 1108.
- Purdy JK, Appelman HD, Golembeski CP, et al. Lymphocytic esophagitis: a chronic or recurring pattern of esophagitis resembling allergic contact dermatitis. Am J Clin Pathol 2008; 130: 508.
- Ronkainen J, Walker MM, Aro P, et al. Lymphocytic oesophagitis, a condition in search of a disease? Gut 2012; 61: 1776.
- Hendy PJ, Florin TH. Spontaneous oesophageal perforation: an unreported complication of lymphocytic oesophagitis. Gut 2013; 62: 1668.
- Ebach DR, Vanderheyden AD, Ellison JM, et al. Lymphocytic esophagitis: a possible manifestation of pediatric upper gastrointestinal Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011; 17: 45.
- Kasirye Y, John A, Rall C, et al. Lymphocytic esophagitis presenting as chronic dysphagia. Clin Med Res 2012; 10: 83.
- Tanaka K, Rubio CA, Dlugosz A, et al. Narrow-band imaging magnifying endoscopy in adult patients with eosinophilic esophagitis/esophageal eosinophilia and lymphocytic esophagitis. Gastrointest Endosc 2013; 78: 659.
- Mayock RL, Bertrand P, Morrison CE, et al. Manifestations of sarcoidosis. analysis of 145 patients, with a review of nine series selected from the literature. Am J Med 1963; 35: 67.
- Murdock A, Jacob G. Sarcoidosis of the esophagus presenting macroscopically as Barrett's esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 1661.
- Rustagi T, Majumder S. Dysphagia and spontaneous esophageal perforation in sarcoidosis. Dig Dis Sci 2013; 58: 282.
- Lukens FJ, Machicao VI, Woodward TA, et al. Esophageal sarcoidosis: an unusual diagnosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002; 34: 54.
- Geissinger BW, Sharkey MF, Criss DG, et al. Reversible esophageal motility disorder in a patient with sarcoidosis. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 1423.
- Wiesner PJ, Kleinman MS, Condemi JJ, et al. Sarcoidosis of the esophagus. Am J Dig Dis 1971; 16: 943.
- Oakley JR, Lawrence DA, Fiddian RV. Sarcoidosis associated with Crohn's disease of ileum, mouth and oesophagus. J R Soc Med 1983; 76: 1068.
- Oki M, Saka H, Kitagawa C, et al. Transesophageal bronchoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration for diagnosis of sarcoidosis. Respiration 2013; 85: 137.
- Geboes K, Janssens J, Rutgeerts P, et al. Crohn's disease of the esophagus. J Clin Gastroenterol 1986; 8: 31.
- Isaacs KL. Crohn's disease of the esophagus. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2007; 10: 61.
- Rudolph I, Goldstein F, DiMarino AJ Jr. Crohn's disease of the esophagus: three cases and a literature review. Can J Gastroenterol 2001; 15: 117.
- Castellaneta SP, Afzal NA, Greenberg M, et al. Diagnostic role of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2004; 39: 257.
- Ruuska T, Vaajalahti P, Arajarvi P, et al. Prospective evaluation of upper gastrointestinal mucosal lesions in children with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1994; 19: 181.
- Lazarev M, Huang C, Bitton A, et al. Relationship between proximal Crohn's disease location and disease behavior and surgery: a cross-sectional study of the IBD Genetics Consortium. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 106.
- Taskin V, von Sohsten R, Singh B, et al. Crohn's disease of the esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 1000.
- D'Haens G, Rutgeerts P, Geboes K, et al. The natural history of esophageal Crohn's disease: three patterns of evolution. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40: 296.
- Remes-Troche JM, Argote-Greene M, Rubio-Tapia A, et al. Progressive dysphagia caused by isolated esophageal involvement of Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005; 11: 515.
- Gheorghe C, Aposteanu G, Popescu C, et al. Long esophageal stricture in Crohn's disease: a case report. Hepatogastroenterology 1998; 45: 738.
- Yekebas E, Busch C, Soehendra N, et al. Boerhaave-mimicking esophageal perforation with subsequent esophagobronchial fistula formation as the primary manifestation of Crohn's disease. Dig Surg 2000; 17: 631.
- Hanai H, Honda S, Sugimoto K, et al. Endoscopic therapy for multiple mucosal bridges in the esophagus of a patient with Crohn's disease. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 50: 715.
- Rholl JC, Yavorski RT, Cheney CP, et al. Esophagogastric fistula: a complication of Crohn's disease–case report and review of the literature. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 1381.
- Cosme A, Bujanda L, Arriola JA, et al. Esophageal Crohn's disease with esophagopleural fistula. Endoscopy 1998; 30: S109.
- Wang W, Ni Y, Ke C, et al. Isolated Crohn's disease of the esophagus with esophago-mediastinal fistula formation. World J Surg Oncol 2012; 10: 208.
- Shimizu S, Tada M, Kawai K. Endoscopic ultrasonography in inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 1995; 5: 851.
- Lew RJ, Ginsberg GG. The role of endoscopic ultrasound in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2002; 12: 561.
- Feagans J, Victor D, Joshi V. Crohn disease of the esophagus: a review of the literature. South Med J 2008; 101: 927.
- Ho IK, Guarino DP, Pertsovskiy Y, et al. Infliximab treatment of an esophagobronchial fistula in a patient with extensive Crohn's disease of the esophagus. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002; 34: 488.
- Thomas TS, Berto E, Scribano ML, et al. Treatment of esophageal Crohn's disease by enteral feeding via percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2000; 24: 176.
- Armitage JO. Bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 827.
- Nakshabendi IM, Maldonado ME, Coppola D, et al. Esophageal cast: a manifestation of graft-versus-host disease. Dig Dis 2000; 18: 103.
- Snover DC. Graft-versus-host disease of the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Surg Pathol 1990; 14: 101.
- McDonald GB, Sullivan KM, Schuffler MD, et al. Esophageal abnormalities in chronic graft-versus-host disease in humans. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 914.
- Minocha A, Mandanas RA, Kida M, et al. Bullous esophagitis due to chronic graft-versus-host disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 529.
- Kalantari BN, Mortele KJ, Cantisani V, et al. CT features with pathologic correlation of acute gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease after bone marrow transplantation in adults. Am J Roentgenol 2003; 181: 1621.
- Appleton AL, Sviland L, Pearson AD, et al. The need for endoscopic biopsy in the diagnosis of upper gastrointestinal graft-versus-host disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1993; 16: 183.
- Schima W, Pokieser P, Forstinger C, et al. Videofluoroscopy of the pharynx and esophagus in chronic graft-versus-host disease. Abdom Imaging 1994; 19: 191.
- Aslanian H, Chander B, Robert M, et al. Prospective evaluation of acute graft-versus-host disease. Dig Dis Sci 2012; 57: 720.
- Neumann S, Schoppmeyer K, Lange T, et al. Wireless capsule endoscopy for diagnosis of acute intestinal graft-versus-host disease. Gastrointest Endosc 2007; 65: 403.
- Han SB, Lee CW, Yoon YD, et al. Effective prevention of lethal acute graft-versus-host disease by combined immunosuppressive therapy with prodigiosin and cyclosporine A. Biochem Pharmacol 2005; 70: 1518.
- Rodriguez V, Anderson PM, Trotz BA, et al. Use of infliximab-daclizumab combination for the treatment of acute and chronic graft-versus-host disease of the liver and gut. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2007; 49: 212.
- Mori S, Yoshihira A, Kawamura H, et al. Esophageal involvement in Behcet's disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1983; 78: 548.
- Yi SW, Cheon JH, Kim JH, et al. The prevalence and clinical characteristics of esophageal involvement in patients with Behcet's disease: a single center experience in Korea. J Korean Med Sci 2009; 24: 52.
- Sakane T, Takeno M, Suzuki N, et al. Behcet's disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 1284.
- Ikezawa K, Kashimura H, Hassan M, et al. A case of Behcet's syndrome with esophageal involvement treated with salicylazosulfapyridine and prednisolone. Endoscopy 1998; 30: S52.
- Foster GR. Behcet's colitis with oesophageal ulceration treated with sulphasalazine and cyclosporin. J R Soc Med 1988; 81: 545.
- Bottomley WW, Dakkak M, Walton S, et al. Esophageal involvement in Behcet's disease. Is endoscopy necessary? Dig Dis Sci 1992; 37: 594.
- Brodie TE, Ochsner JL. Behcet's syndrome with ulcerative oesophagitis: report of the first case. Thorax 1973; 28: 637.
- Yasuo M, Miyabayashi H, Okano T, et al. Successful treatment with corticosteroid in a case of Behcet's syndrome with multiple esophageal ulcerations. Intern Med 2003; 42: 696.
- Fujiwara S, Shimizu I, Ishikawa M, et al. Intestinal Behcet's disease with esophageal ulcers and colonic longitudinal ulcers. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 2622.
- Maruyama Y, Hisamatsu T, Matsuoka K, et al. A case of intestinal Behcet's disease treated with infliximab monotherapy who successfully maintained clinical remission and complete mucosal healing for six years. Intern Med 2012; 51: 2125.
- Anselmino M, Zaninotto G, Costantini M, et al. Esophageal motor function in primary Sjogren's syndrome: correlation with dysphagia and xerostomia. Dig Dis Sci 1997; 42: 113.
- Rogus-Pulia NM, Logemann JA. Effects of reduced saliva production on swallowing in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Dysphagia 2011; 26: 295.
- Kjellen G, Fransson SG, Lindstrom F, et al. Esophageal function, radiography, and dysphagia in Sjogren's syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 1986; 31: 225.
- Volter F, Fain O, Mathieu E, et al. Esophageal function and Sjogren's syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 2004; 49: 248.
- Palma R, Freire A, Freitas J, et al. Esophageal motility disorders in patients with Sjogren's syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39: 758.
- Grande L, Lacima G, Ros E, et al. Esophageal motor function in primary Sjogren's syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 378.
- Ebert EC. Gastrointestinal and hepatic manifestations of Sjogren syndrome. J Clin Gastroenterol 2012; 46: 25.
- Kahi CJ, Vakili S, Liepnieks JJ, et al. Amyloidoma of the esophagus. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 910.
- Suris X, Moya F, Panes J, et al. Achalasia of the esophagus in secondary amyloidosis. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 1959.
- Costigan DJ, Clouse RE. Achalasia-like esophagus from amyloidosis. Successful treatment with pneumatic bag dilatation. Dig Dis Sci 1983; 28: 763.
- Rubinow A, Burakoff R, Cohen AS, et al. Esophageal manometry in systemic amyloidosis. A study of 30 patients. Am J Med 1983; 75: 951.
- Khan GA, Lewis FI, Dasgupta M. Beta 2-microglobulin amyloidosis presenting as esophageal perforation in a hemodialysis patient. Am J Nephrol 1997; 17: 524.
- Cappell MS. Esophageal necrosis and perforation associated with the anticardiolipin antibody syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 1241.
- De Clerck LS, Michielsen PP, Ramael MR, et al. Portal and pulmonary vessel thrombosis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus and anticardiolipin antibodies. J Rheumatol 1991; 18: 1919.
- Ordi J, Vargas V, Vilardell M, et al. Lupus anticoagulant and portal hypertension. Am J Med 1988; 84: 566.
- Memar O, Christensen B, Rajaraman S, et al. Induction of blister-causing antibodies by a recombinant full-length, but not the extracellular, domain of the pemphigus vulgaris antigen (desmoglein 3). J Immunol 1996; 157: 3171.
- Nguyen VT, Ndoye A, Grando SA. Novel human alpha9 acetylcholine receptor regulating keratinocyte adhesion is targeted by pemphigus vulgaris autoimmunity. Am J Pathol 2000; 157: 1377.
- Fine JD. Management of acquired bullous skin diseases. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1475.
- Galloro G, Mignogna M, de Werra C, et al. The role of upper endoscopy in identifying oesophageal involvement in patients with oral pemphigus vulgaris. Dig Liver Dis 2005; 37: 195.
- Gomi H, Akiyama M, Yakabi K, et al. Oesophageal involvement in pemphigus vulgaris. Lancet 1999; 354: 1794.
- Calka O, Akdeniz N, Tuncer I, et al. Oesophageal involvement during attacks in pemphigus vulgaris patients. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006; 31: 515.
- Amichai B, Grunwald MH, Gasper N, et al. A case of pemphigus vulgaris with esophageal involvement. J Dermatol 1996; 23: 214.
- Frangogiannis NG, Gangopadhyay S, Cate T. Pemphigus of the larynx and esophagus. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 803.
- Mohan P, Srinivas CR, Leelakrishnan V. A rare initial presentation of esophageal involvement in pemphigus. Dis Esophagus 2013; 26: 351.
- Galloro G, Diamantis G, Magno L, et al. Technical aspects in endoscopic biopsy of lesions in esophageal pemphigus vulgaris. Dig Liver Dis 2007; 39: 363.
- Trattner A, Lurie R, Leiser A, et al. Esophageal involvement in pemphigus vulgaris: a clinical, histologic, and immunopathologic study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 24: 223.
- Schissel DJ, David-Bajar K. Esophagitis dissecans superficialis associated with pemphigus vulgaris. Cutis 1999; 63: 157.
- Lenz P, Amagai M, Volc-Platzer B, et al. Desmoglein 3-ELISA: a pemphigus vulgaris-specific diagnostic tool. Arch Dermatol 1999; 135: 143.
- Ruocco E, Wolf R, Ruocco V, et al. Pemphigus: associations and management guidelines: facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol 2013; 31: 382.
- Venning VA, Taghipour K, Mohd Mustapa MF, et al. British Association of Dermatologists' guidelines for the management of bullous pemphigoid 2012. Br J Dermatol 2012; 167: 1200.
- Yancey KB, Hintner H. Advances in the diagnosis of subepidermal bullous diseases. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132: 220.
- Sharon P, Greene ML, Rachmilewitz D. Esophageal involvement in bullous pemphigoid. Gastrointest Endosc 1978; 24: 122.
- Maharshak N, Sagi M, Santos E, et al. Oesophageal involvement in bullous pemphigoid. Clin Exp Dermatol 2013; 38: 274.
- Eng TY, Hogan WJ, Jordon RE. Oesophageal involvement in bullous pemphigoid. A possible cause of gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Br J Dermatol 1978; 99: 207.
- Egan CA, Hanif N, Taylor TB, et al. Characterization of the antibody response in oesophageal cicatricial pemphigoid. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 859.
- Egan CA, Yancey KB. The clinical and immunopathological manifestations of anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid, a recently defined subepithelial autoimmune blistering disease. Eur J Dermatol 2000; 10: 585.
- Bernard P, Antonicelli F, Bedane C, et al. Prevalence and clinical significance of anti-laminin 332 autoantibodies detected by a novel enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in mucous membrane pemphigoid. JAMA Dermatol 2013; 149: 533.
- Schmidt E, Zillikens D. Pemphigoid diseases. Lancet 2013; 381: 320.
- Nguyen QD, Foster CS. Cicatricial pemphigoid: diagnosis and treatment. Int Ophthalmol Clin 1996; 36: 41.
- Isolauri J, Airo I. Benign mucous membrane pemphigoid involving the esophagus: a report of two cases treated with dilation. Gastrointest Endosc 1989; 35: 569.
- Witte JT, Icken JN, Lloyd ML. Induction of esophageal bullae by endoscopy in benign mucous membrane pemphigoid. Gastrointest Endosc 1989; 35: 566.
- Naylor MF, MacCarty RL, Rogers RS 3rd. Barium studies in esophageal cicatricial pemphigoid. Abdom Imaging 1995; 20: 97.
- Syn WK, Ahmed MM. Esophageal involvement in cicatricial pemphigoid: a rare cause of dysphagia. Dis Esophagus 2004; 17: 180.
- Sacher C, Hunzelmann N. Cicatricial pemphigoid (mucous membrane pemphigoid): current and emerging therapeutic approaches. Am J Clin Dermatol 2005; 6: 93.
- Kourosh AS, Yancey KB. Therapeutic approaches to patients with mucous membrane pemphigoid. Dermatol Clin 2011; 29: 637.
- Popovici Z, Deac M, Rotaru M, et al. Stenosis of the esophagus in cicatricial pemphigoid resolved by colon interposition: report of a case. Surg Today 1997; 27: 234.
- Gardella R, Barlati S, Zoppi N, et al. A -96C–>T mutation in the promoter of the collagen type VII gene (COL7A1) abolishing transcription in a patient affected by recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Hum Mutat 2000; 16: 275.
- Mohammedi R, Mellerio JE, Ashton GH, et al. A recurrent COL7A1 mutation, R2814X, in British patients with recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Clin Exp Dermatol 1999; 24: 37.
- Ergun GA, Lin AN, Dannenberg AJ, et al. Gastrointestinal manifestations of epidermolysis bullosa. A study of 101 patients. Medicine 1992; 71: 121.
- Holbrook KA. Extracutaneous epithelial involvement in inherited epidermolysis bullosa. Arch Dermatol 1988; 124: 726.
- Bruckner-Tuderman L. Dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa: pathogenesis and clinical features. Dermatol Clin 2010; 28: 107.
- Schattenkirchner S, Lemann M, Prost C, et al. Localized epidermolysis bullosa acquisita of the esophagus in a patient with Crohn's disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 1657.
- Taniuchi K, Inaoki M, Nishimura Y, et al. Nonscarring inflammatory epidermolysis bullosa acquisita with esophageal involvement and linear IgG deposits. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 36: 320.
- Wong WL, Entwisle K, Pemberton J. Gastrointestinal manifestations in the Hallopeau-Siemens variant of recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Br J Radiol 1993; 66: 788.
- Tishler JM, Han SY, Helman CA. Esophageal involvement in epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica. Am J Roentgenol 1983; 141: 1283.
- Horan TA, Urschel JD, MacEachern NA, et al. Esophageal perforation in recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Ann Thorac Surg 1994; 57: 1027.
- El-Darouti MA, Fawzy MM, Amin IM, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil: a novel immunosuppressant in the treatment of dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa, a randomized controlled trial. J Dermatolog Treat 2013.
- Okada T, Sasaki F, Shimizu H, et al. Effective esophageal balloon dilation for esophageal stenosis in recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Eur J Pediatr Surg 2006; 16: 115.
- Heyman MB, Zwass M, Applebaum M, et al. Chronic recurrent esophageal strictures treated with balloon dilation in children with autosomal recessive epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 953.
- Spiliopoulos S, Sabharwal T, Krokidis M, et al. Fluoroscopically guided dilation of esophageal strictures in patients with dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa: long-term results. Am J Roentgenol 2012; 199: 208.
- Touloukian RJ, Schonholz SM, Gryboski JD, et al. Perioperative considerations in esophageal replacement for epidermolysis bullosa: report of two cases successfully treated by colon interposition. Am J Gastroenterol 1988; 83: 857.
- Tang SJ. Electronic clinical challenges and images in GI. Esophageal involvement in mucous membrane pemphigoid. Gastroenterology 2009; 136: e6.