Chapter 23
Chocolate Production and Uses in 17th and 18th Century North America
James F. Gay,
James F. Gay
Journeyman
Historic Foodways, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA
Search for more papers by this authorJames F. Gay,
James F. Gay
Journeyman
Historic Foodways, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA
Search for more papers by this authorBook Editor(s):Louis Evan Grivetti,
Howard-Yana Shapiro,
Louis Evan Grivetti
Professor Emeritos
Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, California, USA
Search for more papers by this authorHoward-Yana Shapiro
Director of Plant Science
Mars, Incorporated, McLean, Virginia, USA
University of California, Davis, California, USA
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 16 May 2008
Summary
This chapter contains sections titled:
-
Introduction
-
Food of the Gods and Turmoil in the Caribbean
-
American Production and Manufacturing
-
Conclusion
-
Acknowledgments
-
Endnotes
-
References
Reference
- S. Bercovitch, editor. The Diaries of John Hull, Mintmaster and Treasurer of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay. Boston: J. Wilson and Son, 1857. Reprinted in Puritan Personal Writings: Diaries. New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1982, p. 158.
- Ward, G., The silver chocolate pots of Colonial Boston. In: G. Ward, and J. Falino, editors. New England Silver and Silversmithing 1620–1815. Boston: The Colonial Society of Massachusetts; distributed by the University of Virginia Press, 2001; p. 61.
- Colonial Port Commodity Import and Export Records for Virginia (Accomac, Rappahannock, South Potomac), Jamaica, New York, and South Carolina (1680–1769). M-1892 1–9 at the Rockefeller Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
- Massachusetts Naval Officer Shipping List, 1686–1765, PRO HE 752.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica; or A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, Compiled Upon a New Plan. In which The different Sciences and Arts are digested into distinct Treatises or Systems; and The various Technical Terms, &c. are explained as they occur in the order of the Alphabet. By a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland in Three Volumes, Volume III. Edinburgh, Scotland: A. Bell and C. MacFarquhar, 1771; p. 895.
- Presilla, M. The New Taste of Chocolate: A Cultural and Natural History of Cacao with Recipes. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2001; p. 27.
- Brookes, R. The Natural History of Chocolate. London; England: J. Roberts (printer), 1730; p. 30.
- Brookes, R. The Natural History of Chocolate, London, England: J. Roberts (printer), 1730; p. 32.
- Emmanuel, I. S., and Emmanuel, S. A. History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, First Volume, Royal Vangorcum, LTD. Cincinnati, OH: American Jewish Archives, 1970; p. 71.
- Clarence-Smith, W. G. Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765–1914. New York: Routledge, 2000; p. 40.
- Emmanuel, I. S., and Emmanuel, S. A. History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, First Volume, Royal Vangorcum, LTD. Cincinnati, OH: American Jewish Archives, 1970; p. 71.
- Emmanuel, I. S., and Emmanuel, S. A. History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles, First Volume, Royal Vangorcum, LTD. Cincinnati, OH: American Jewish Archives, 1970; p. 72.
- Rediker, M. Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American World, 1700–1750. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987; p. 20.
- Taylor, A. American Colonies. New York: Penguin Books, 2001; p. 176.
- Middleton, A. P. The Tobacco Coast. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1953; p. 219.
- Taylor, A. American Colonies. New York: Penguin Books, 2001; p. 298.
- Clarence-Smith, W. G. Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765–1914. New York: Routledge, 2000; p. 41.
- Patriot's Resource: Townshend Acts. Available at http://www.patriotresource.com/documents/townshend.html. (Accessed January 11, 2007.)
- Clarence-Smith, W. Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765–1914. New York: Routledge, 2000; p. 68.
- The Proceedings of the Old Bailey. Available at http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/html_units/1720s/t17281204-27.html. (Accessed January 11, 2007.)
-
Huey, P. R. The Almshouse in Dutch and English Colonial North America and its precedent in the Old World: historical and archaeological evidence. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 2001; 5(2): 149.
10.1023/A:1011395325889 Google Scholar
- Hamilton, Dr. A. Hamiltons Itinerarium; being a narrative of a journey from Annapolis, Maryland, through Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York: New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New Hampshire, from May to September, 1744. Edited by Albert Bushnell Hart. p. 16.
- The Virginia Historical Register. Smyth's Travels in Virginia, 1773, p. 77.
- Clarence-Smith, W. Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765–1914. New York: Routledge, 2000; p. 41.
- Massachusetts Naval Office Shipping Lists, 1686–1765; PRO, Reel 1, 1979.
- Thompson, M. Moses Brown: Reluctant Reformer. Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture at Williamsburg, VA. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1962; pp. 11–12.
- Smith, H. W. A Note to Longfellow's “The Jewish Cemetery at Newport.” College English 1956; 18(2): 103–104. Available at http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00100994%28195611%2918%3A2%3C103%3AANTL%22J%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M. (Accessed January 11, 2007.)
- Marcus, J. R. The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1970; p. 673.
- The Pennsylvania Gazette, May 22, 1735. The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio I 1728–1750. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #1881.
- Middleton, A. The Tobacco Coast, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1953; p. 221.
- Ledger of Imports and Exports (American); January 5,1768–January 5,1773; PRO/Customs 16/1.
- James Baker Records, Box 1, Folder 11, Jan–Jun 1771 held at the American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA. Jan 3, 1771, Baker pays Enoch Brown for cart of 601cwt of cocoa from Providence.
- Taylor, A. American Colonies. New York: Penguin Books, 2001; p. 255.
- Marcus, J. The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1970; p. 607.
- Colonial Port Commodity Import and Export Records for Virginia (Accomac, Rappahannock, South Potomac), Jamaica, New York: and South Carolina (1680–1769). M-1892 1–9 at the Rockefeller Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
- Janzen, O. Garrison Life in the 18th Century: Newfoundland and Labrador, 1991. Available at http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/glife_18c_1.html. (Accessed January 11, 2007.)
- Boston Post Boy. April 8, 1765; Issue 299, p. 3.
- Joseph Fry Letter to British Customs, June 27, 1776; PRO T1 S23/332–336.
- Governor Nicholson Letter to the Council of Trade and Plantations, March 6, 1705. Calendar of State Papers, Colonial: North America and the West Indies CD-ROM. New York: Routledge, 2000.
- L. B. Wright, and M. Tinling, editors. The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, 1709–1712. Richmond, VA: Dietz Press, 1941; p. 4.
- Fitzpatrick, J. C. The writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources. Washington, George, 1732–1799. Available at http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2wwwwashington?specfile=/texts/english/washington/fitzpatrick/search/gw.o2w&act=surround&offset=37666381&tag=Writings+of+Washington,+Vol.+30:+To+CLEMENT+BIDDLE&query=chocolate&id=gw300170. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Fitzpatrick, J. C. The writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources. Washington, George, 1732–1799. Available at http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2wwwwashington?specfile=/texts/english/washington/fitzpatrick/search/gw.o2w&act=surround&offset=41733107&tag=Writings+of+Washington,+Vol.+33:+*To+BURGES+BALL&query=Chocolate&id=gw330223. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Carson, J. Colonial Virginia Cookery. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1985; p. xiii.
- Smith, E. The Compleat Housewife. Reprinted by William Parks, Williamsburg, VA, 1742; p. 224.
- Harbury, K. E. Colonial Virginians Cooking Dynasty. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004; p. xiv.
- Harbury, K. Colonial Virginians Cooking Dynasty. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004; p. xv.
- Harbury, K. Colonial Virginians Cooking Dynasty. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004; p. 189.
- Harbury, K. Colonial Virginians Cooking Dynasty. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004; p. 189.
- Gunston Hall Plantation Probate Inventory Database. Available at http://gunstonhall.org/probate/inventory.htm. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Colonial Williamsburg Foundation unpublished research study comparing costs of consumer goods sold in Williamsburg stores, private accounts, and newspaper advertisements. See also Walsh, L. S. Provisioning Early American Towns. The Chesapeake: A Multidisciplinary Case Study. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1997. Available at http://research.history.org/Historical_Research/Technical_Reports/DownloadPDF. cfm?ReportID=HistRes02. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- The Virginia Gazette. December 18, 1766, 2:2.
- Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, Historic Census Browser, University of Virginia Library. Available at http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Colonial Port Commodity Import and Export Records for Virginia (Accomac, Rappahannock, South Potomac), Jamaica, New York: and South Carolina (1680–1769) M-1892 1–9 at the Rockefeller Library, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
- Ledger of Imports and Exports (American); January 5, 1768–January 5, 1773; PRO/Customs 16/1.
- Clarence-Smith, W. Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765–1914. New York: Routledge, 2000; p. 13.
- Coe, S. D., and Coe, M. D. The True History of Chocolate. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996; p. 215 for description of chocolate used in murder. See also The Virginia Gazette. December 15, 1774; p. 2 for the accusation of the Jesuits.
- Thomas, M. H. The Diary of Samuel Sewall, Volume 1, 1674–1708. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Inc., 1973; p. 380.
- Thomas, M. The Diary of Samuel Sewall, Volume 1, 1674–1708. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Inc., 1973; p. 476.
- Thomas, M. The Diary of Samuel Sewall, Volume 1, 1674–1708. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, Inc., 1973; pp. 563–564.
- Thomas, M. The Diary of Samuel Sewall, Volume 1, 1674–1708. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, Inc., 1973; p. 570.
- Thomas, M. The Diary of Samuel Sewall, Volume 1, 1674–1708. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, Inc., 1973; p. 626.
- Fischer, D. H. Albion's Seed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989; p. 540.
- Randolph, M. The Virginia House-wife, 1824. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1984; p. 17.
- Boston Evening Post. February 8, 1773; Issue 1950; p. 3.
- Boston Post Boy. January 28, 1751; p. 2.
- Dorchester Athenaeum. Available at http://www.dorchesteratheneum.org/page.php?id=67. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- The Pennsylvania Gazette. January 28, 1762; The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio II 1751–1765. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #27995.
- The Pennsylvania Gazette. March 8, 1764. The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio II 1751–1765. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #32819.
- Brookes, R. The Natural History of Chocolate, London, England: • •, 1730; p. 37.
- Brookes, R. The Natural History of Chocolate, London, England: • •, 1730; p. 64.
- Encyclopaedia Britannica, Volume 2. Edinburgh, Scotland: Colin MacFarquhar, 1771; p. 193.
- Dow, G. F. The Arts and Crafts of New England, 1704–1775. New York: Da Capo Press, 1967; p. 294.
- The Virginia Gazette. Accessible through the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, http://research.history.org/JDRLibrary/Online_Resources/VirginiaGazette/VGPPIndex.cfm?firstltr=C. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Franklin, B. Autobiography. In: C. W. Eliot, editor. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. The Journal of John Woolman, the Fruits of Solitude William Penn. New York: P. F. Collier and Son, 1909. Available at http://mith2.umd.edu/eada/html/display.php?docs=franklin_autobiography.xml. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio I 1728–1750. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #8490.
- The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Volume IX, House of the Society. Richmond, VA: The Virginia Historical Society, 1902; p. 147.
- The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio II 1751–1765. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #59354.
- The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Volume XXI, House of the Society. Richmond, VA: The Virginia Historical Society, 1913; p. 156. (Reprinted with permission of the original publisher Kraus Reprint Corporation, New York: 1968.)
- Frayler, J. “Privateers in the American Revolution.” National Park Service. Available at http://www.nps.gov/revwar/about_the_revolution/privateers.html. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- Rediker, M. Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American World, 1700–1750. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
- Article Bookmark (OpenURL Compliant): Early American Imprints, 1st series, no. 15427 (filmed). Available at http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:EVANL&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F2F82E70740B080&svc_dat=Evans:eaidoc&req_dat=0D0CB57AEDE52A75. (Accessed January 12, 2007.)
- The Virginia Gazette. November 14, 1777, 3:1.
- The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio III 1766–1783. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #64559.
- The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio III 1766–1783. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #64559.
- The Accessible Archives CD-ROM Pennsylvania Gazette Folio III 1766–1783. Malvern, PA: Accessible Archives, Inc., 1993; #64841.
- The Virginia Gazette. July, 31, 1779, 3:1.
- Wm. P. Palmer, M.D., editor. Calender of Virginia State Papers: 1652–1781; Volume I. Richmond, VA: Virginia State Library, 1875, p. 374. (Reprinted with the permission of the Virginia State Library by Kraus Reprint Corp., New York, 1968.)
- Massachusetts Spy: Or, Worcester Gazette. January 20, 1785, p. 3.
- The Daily Advertiser (New York). January 3, 1794, p. 1.
- New-York Daily Gazette. May 19, 1794, p. 2.
- Gazette of the United States (Philadelphia). October 4, 1796, p. 4.
- City Gazette And Daily Advertiser (Charleston, SC). January 23, 1797, p. 1.
- Baltimore Weekly Price Current. February 27, 1806, p. 3.
- Thwing Index of Early Boston Inhabitants. Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 2005.
- Baker, W. Cocoa and Chocolate. Dorchester, MA: Walter Baker & Company, 1917.
- Thwing Index of Early Boston Inhabitants. Boston Massachusetts Historical Society, 2005.
- Boston Daily Advertiser. January 18, 1817, p. 4.
- The Federal Gazette, and Philadelphia Evening Post. October 9, 1792, p. 2.
- Federal Gazette and Baltimore Advertiser. January 1, 1796, p. 4.
- City Gazette and Daily Advertiser (Charleston, SC). February 4, 1795, p. 4.
- American Citizen and General Advertiser (New York). June 10, 1801, p. 3.
