Freeze-Drying
Abstract
The article contains sections titled:
| 1. | Introduction |
| 1.1. | Definition, Principles |
| 1.2. | Basic Components of a Freeze-Dryer |
| 1.3. | Reasons for Freeze-Drying |
| 1.4. | Chemical Engineering Tasks in Industrial Freeze-Drying |
| 2. | The Steps Required to Freeze-Dry Products |
| 2.1. | General Remarks |
| 2.2. | Freezing: Templating Cake Structure and Properties |
| 2.3. | Primary Drying Stage: Sublimation of Ice |
| 2.4. | Secondary Drying Stage: Removal of Sorbed Water |
| 2.5. | Conditioning: Packing and Storage |
| 3. | Temperatures and Pressures |
| 3.1. | Barometric Temperature Measurement |
| 3.2. | Pressure During Secondary Drying Stage |
| 3.3. | Water Vapor Flow between Chamber and Condenser |
| 3.4. | Techniques to Measure Residual Moisture Content |
| 3.5. | Uniformity of Temperature, Pressure, and Product |
| 4. | Structures of Frozen and Dried Products |
| 4.1. | Influence of Freezing Method and Excipients |
| 4.2. | Methods of Structure and Morphology Analysis |
| 5. | Industrial Freeze-Drying Installations for Pharmaceutical Products |
| 5.1. | Regulatory Requirements for Pharmaceutical Installations |
| 5.2. | Freeze-Dryer Performance |
| 5.3. | Freeze-Drying Installations for Batch Processes |
| 5.3.1. | Chamber with Shelf System |
| 5.3.2. | Ice Condenser |
| 5.3.3. | Cooling System |
| 5.3.4. | Vacuum System |
| 5.3.5. | Venting, Cleaning, and Sterilization System |
| 5.4. | Freeze-Drying Installations for Continuous Processes |
| 5.5. | Auxiliary Functions |
| 5.5.1. | Automatic Loading and Unloading Systems (ALUS) |
| 5.5.2. | ALUS – Outlook and Summary |
| 5.5.3. | Venting Filter and Integrity Test |
| 5.5.4. | Leak Rate Calculation |
| 5.5.5. | Silicone Oil Detection |
| 5.5.6. | Controlled Nucleation |
| 5.5.7. | Process Instrumentation |
| 5.5.8. | Control System |
| 5.5.9. | Social and Economic Aspects |
