Distillation and Rectification

1.	Introduction
2.	Vapor - Liquid Equilibrium
2.1.	Empirical Findings in Vapor - Liquid Equilibrium
2.1.1.	Binary Mixtures
2.1.2.	Ternary Mixtures
2.2.	Empirical Laws of Vapor - Liquid Equilibrium
2.2.1.	Equilibrium Constant
2.2.2.	Equilibrium Curve
2.2.3.	Distillation Curve
2.3.	Calculation of Phase Equilibrium from Excess Enthalpy
2.4.	Calculation of Phase Equilibrium from Equations of State
2.5.	Practical Determination of Phase Equilibria
3.	Distillation
3.1.	Continuous Distillation
3.1.1.	Continuous Distillation of Binary Mixtures
3.1.2.	Continuous Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures
3.2.	Batch Distillation
3.2.1.	Batch Distillation of Binary Mixtures
3.2.2.	Batch Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures
3.3.	Semicontinuous Distillation
3.3.1.	Semicontinuous Distillation of Binary Mixtures
3.3.2.	Semicontinuous Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures
4.	Continuous Rectification (Multiple Distillation)
4.1.	Principles
4.1.1.	Equilibrium-Stage Concept
4.1.2.	Transfer-Unit Concept
4.1.3.	Comparison of Equilibrium-Stage and Transfer-Unit Concepts
4.2.	Rectification of Binary Mixtures
4.2.1.	Prediction of Rectification Based on Material Balance
4.2.2.	Prediction of Rectification Based on Material and Enthalpy Balances
4.2.3.	Rectification of Binary Mixtures at Infinite Reflux Ratio
4.2.4.	Rectification of Binary Mixtures at Minimum Reflux Ratio
4.2.5.	Heat Requirements for Rectification of Binary Mixtures
4.3.	Rectification of Ternary Mixtures
4.3.1.	Rectification of Ternary Mixtures at Infinite Reflux Ratio
4.3.2.	Rectification of Ternary Mixtures at Minimum Internal Loads
4.3.2.1.	Minimum Reflux Ratio and Minimum Reboil Ratio for Preferred Separation
4.3.2.2.	Minimum Reflux Ratio for Separation of the Low Boiler
4.3.2.3.	Minimum Reboil Ratio for Separation of the High Boiler
4.3.3.	Rectification of Ternary Mixtures at Finite Reflux Ratio
4.3.4.	Problems Arising in Column Calculations
4.4.	Rectification of Multicomponent Mixtures
5.	Batch Rectification
5.1.	Batch Rectification of Binary Mixtures
5.1.1.	Operation at Constant Reflux Ratio
5.1.2.	Operation at Constant Distillate Composition
5.1.3.	Operation with Minimum Energy Requirement
5.2.	Batch Rectification of Multicomponent Mixtures
6.	Industrial Rectification Processes
6.1.	Binary Rectification
6.2.	Multicomponent Separation
6.3.	Separation of Heterogeneous Azeotropic Mixtures
6.4.	Separation of Binary Azeotropic Mixtures by Changing System Pressure
6.5.	Separation of Azeotropic Mixtures with an Entrainer (Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation)
6.5.1.	Process Description
6.5.2.	Choice of Entrainer
6.5.3.	Entrainment Rectification of Azeotropic Mixtures in Combination with Other Separation Methods
7.	Energy Economization in Rectification
7.1.	Single Columns
7.1.1.	Reduction of Heat Requirement
7.1.2.	Reduction of Exergy Losses
7.2.	Optimal Separation Sequences for Multicomponent Mixtures
7.3.	Column Coupling
7.3.1.	Direct Coupling of Columns
7.3.2.	Indirect Coupling of Columns
7.3.2.1.	Binary Mixtures
7.3.2.2.	Ternary Mixtures
7.4.	Design of Heat-Exchanger Networks
8.	Design and Dimensioning of Mass-Transfer Equipment
8.1.	Types of Construction
8.1.1.	Plate Columns
8.1.2.	Packed Columns
8.1.3.	Criteria for Use of Plate or Packed Columns
8.2.	Dimensioning of Plate Columns
8.2.1.	Operating Region of Plate Columns
8.2.2.	Two-Phase Flow in Plate Columns
8.2.3.	Mass Transfer in the Two-Phase Layer on Column Plates
8.3.	Dimensioning of Packed Columns
8.3.1.	Operating Region of Packed Columns
8.3.2.	Two-Phase Flow in Packed Columns
8.3.3.	Calculation of Mass Transfer in Packed Columns

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