Solar Technology

1.	Introduction
1.1.	Concerning the Importance of Solar Energy Conversion
1.2.	Terrestrial Solar Radiation
1.3.	Methods of Solar Energy Conversion
1.4.	Matching of Solar Energy Production and Consumption
2.	Solar Thermal Energy
2.1.	Development and Historical Aspects
2.2.	Solar Thermal Energy Conversion
2.3.	Technical Utilization of Solar Energy
2.3.1.	Low-Temperature Applications
2.3.1.1.	Design and Function of Flat Collectors
2.3.1.2.	Systems for Heating Water
2.3.1.3.	Systems for Room Heating
2.3.1.4.	Other Low-Temperature Applications
2.3.2.	Medium-Temperature and High-Temperature Applications
2.3.2.1.	Solar Concentration
2.3.2.2.	Concepts for Solar Thermal Power Plants
2.3.2.3.	Development for Realization
2.3.2.4.	Solar Thermal Power Plants
2.3.2.5.	Future Plants and Potential
2.3.2.6.	Economic Aspects
2.3.2.7.	Process Heat for Chemical Applications
3.	Passive Utilization of Solar Energy
3.1.	Introduction
3.2.	Building Design
3.2.1.	Site Analysis
3.2.2.	Design
3.2.3.	Heat Conservation
3.3.	Elements of Passive Utilization
3.3.1.	Collection
3.3.2.	Storage and Distribution
3.3.3.	Shading and Cooling
3.3.4.	Daylight
3.4.	Performance of a Solar House
4.	Photovoltaic Systems
4.1.	Principle of Operation, PV Materials, and State-of-the-Art Solar Cells
4.2.	General Structure of PV Systems
4.3.	Photovoltaic Generators
4.3.1.	Module Technology and Specifications
4.3.2.	Tracking and Concentration
4.4.	Power Conditioning Systems
4.5.	Storage
4.6.	Stand-Alone PV Systems
4.7.	Grid-Connected PV Systems
4.8.	Design Considerations and Modeling
4.9.	Operational Experience
4.9.1.	PV Module Performance
4.9.2.	PV System Efficiency, Annual Energy Output
4.10.	Economic Aspects, Market, Energy Payback, Prospects
4.10.1.	Stand-Alone PV Systems
4.10.2.	Grid-Connected PV Systems
4.10.3.	Energy Payback Time
4.10.4.	Multifunctional Use of PV Modules
5.	Photoelectrochemical Solar Energy Conversion
5.1.	Principles of Photoelectrochemical Solar Energy Conversion
5.2.	Dye-Sensitized Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells
5.3.	Solar Wastewater Detoxification
5.4.	Direct Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting
6.	Economic Aspects

References

1 G. R. Davis: “Energy for Planet Earth,” Sci. Am. 263 (1990) no. 3, 21 – 27.
Google Scholar
2 WMO/UNEP: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), supplement, 1992.
Google Scholar
3 W. Palz: “Solar Energy for the World: A Global Photovoltaic Action Programme,” Proc. ISES Solar World Congress, Budapest 1994.
Google Scholar
4 J. Luther, J. Nitsch: Energieversorgung der Zukunft, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1990.
Google Scholar
5 R. Sizmann: Solar Radiation Conversion, in C. Winter et al. (eds): Solar Power Plants, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1991, pp. 17–81.
10.1007/978-3-642-61245-9_2
Google Scholar
6 H. G. Beyer, J. Luther, R. Steinberger-Willms: “Reduction of Fluctuations in Lumped Power Output from Distantly Spaced PV-Arrays,” Proc. ISES Solar World Congress, Denver 1991, pp. 321 – 326.
Google Scholar
7 D. Heinemann, J. Luther: “Utilization of Weather Forecasts and Climatic Information for the Control of Renewable Energy Systems,” Proc. 8th Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Florence, 9 – 13 May, 1988, pp. 249 – 253.
Google Scholar
8 C. J. Winter, J. Nitsch (eds): Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1988.
10.1007/978-3-642-61561-0
Google Scholar
9 R. Sizmann: “Thermal Storage Systems – Present Status and Trends,” in Advances in Solar Energy Technology, Proc. of the Biennial Congress of the International Solar Energy Society, Hamburg 1987.
Google Scholar
10 A. Mouchot: La Chaleur Solaire et ses Applications Industrielles, Gauthiers-Villars, Paris 1869.
Google Scholar
11 O. Kausch: Die unmittelbare Ausnutzung der Sonnenenergie, Carl Steinert Verlag, Weimar 1920.
Google Scholar
12 H. Rau: Heliotechnik — Sonnenenergie in praktischer Anwendung, Udo Pfriemer Verlag, München 1975.
Google Scholar
13 A. B. Meinel, M. P. Meinel: Applied Solar Energy, 2nd ed., Addison Weslay Publ. Comp., Reading 1977.
Google Scholar
14 R. Gööck: Die großen Erfindungen — Wind Wasser Dampf Sonne, Sigloch Edition, Künzelsau 1989.
Google Scholar
15 S. L. Valley: Handbook of Geophysics and Space Environment, McGraw-Hill, New York 1968.
Google Scholar
16 B. Stoy: Wunschenergie Sonne, 3rd ed., Energie-Verlag, Heidelberg 1980.
Google Scholar
17 J. A. Duffie, W. B. Beckmann: Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York 1991.
Google Scholar
18 F. Kreith, J. F. Kreider: Principles of Solar Engineering, Hemisphere Publishing, London 1978.
Google Scholar
19 J. O. Dalenbäck (ed.): “Central Solar Heating Plants with Seasonal Storage: Status Report” Document D14 : 1990, Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm 1990.
Google Scholar
20 M. N. Fisch, M. Guigas, J. O. Dalenbäck: Large-Scale Solar District Heating – Status and Future in Europe, Proceedings EuroSun '96, DGS-Sonnenenergie Verlag, München 1996 pp. 157 – 170.
Google Scholar
21 M. Nast, J. Nitsch: “Möglichkeiten und Grenzen Solarer Nahwärme”, VDI Berichte Nr. 1182 (1995) 725 – 741.
Google Scholar
22 R. Kübler, M. N. Fisch, E. Hahne: “Central Solar Heating Plants with Seasonal Storage: Results of Site Specific Study in Germany,” Proceedings Solar World Congress, Pergamon Press, London 1991, pp. 1505 – 1510.
Google Scholar
23 W. C. Dickinsen, P. N. Cheremisinoff (eds.): Solar Energy Technology Handbook, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York 1980.
Google Scholar
24 C. J. Winter, R. L. Sizmann, L. L. Vant-Hull: Solar Power Plants, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1991.
10.1007/978-3-642-61245-9
Google Scholar
25 M. Kleemann, M. Meliß: Regenerative Energiequellen, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1988.
10.1007/978-3-662-09727-4
Google Scholar
26 R. Pitz-Paal: High Temperature Solar Concentrators in J. Blanco Galvez, S. Malato Rodriguez (eds.): Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy, Eolss Publishers, Oxford 2007.
Google Scholar
27 R. Pitz-Paal: Concentrating Solar Power in T.M. Letcher (ed.): Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet, Elsevier, Oxford 2008.
Google Scholar
28 W. Grasse, M. Becker, B. Finnström: “Solar Energy for High Temperature Technology and Application”, DFVLR, Köln 1987.
Google Scholar
29 M. Becker, W. Meinecke, M. Geyer, F. Trieb, M. Blanco, M. Romero, A. Ferriere: Solar Thermal Power Plants in EUREC Agency: The Future for Renewable Energy 2, James and James, London 2002, pp. 115–137.
Google Scholar
30 CIEMAT/PSA: “General Description of the PSA”, Biannual Report 2008–2009, P.S.A., Tabernas (Almeria), pp. 15–18.
Google Scholar
31 CIEMAT/PSA: “The DISS Experimental Plant”, Biannual Report 2008–2009, P.S.A., Tabernas (Almeria), pp. 19–20.
Google Scholar
32 M. Becker, L.L. Vant-Hull: Thermal Receivers, in C.-J. Winter, R.L. Sizmann, L.L. Vant-Hull (eds.): Solar Power Plants, Springer, Berlin 1991, pp. 163–198.
10.1007/978-3-642-61245-9_5
Google Scholar
33 M. Balat, A. Ferriere: “The Odeillo Solar Furnaces Test Facilities for Materials Characterization at High Temperature and under Controlled Atmosphere” in Proceedings of the 6^th International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies 1992, Ciemat, Madrid 1993, pp. 1409–1420.
Google Scholar
34 Solar Millenium AG, http://www.solarmillennium.de/includes/force_download.php?client=1&path=upload/Download/Technologie/eng/Andasol1-3engl.pdf (accessed March 9, 2012).
Google Scholar
35 R. Bernhard, J. de LaLaing, R. Kistner, M. Eck, M. Eickhoff, J.F. Feldnoff, A. Heimcath, H. Hülsey, G. Morin “Linear Fresnel Collector Demonstration at the PSA – Operation and Investigation”, SolarPACES 2009, Paper 11 927, Berlin 2009.
Google Scholar
36 J.I. Burgaleta, S. Arias, I.B. Salbidegoitia: “Operative Advantages of a Central Tower Solar Plant with Thermal Storage System”, SolarPACES 2009, Paper 11 720, Berlin 2009.
Google Scholar
37 C.E. Tyner, J.E. Pacheco: “eSolar's Power Plant Architecture“, SolarPACES 2009, Paper 16 133, Berlin 2009.
Google Scholar
38 F. Trieb: “The DESERTEC Concept for Energy, Water and Climate Security” in Sustainable Electricity and Water for Europe, Middle East and North Africa, Presentation of the White Paper 2007-11-28, EU Parliament, Brussels 2007.
Google Scholar
39 International Energy Agency (IEA): “Technology Roadmap: Concentrating Solar Power”, 2010, http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp_roadmap.pdf accessed: March 9, 2012).
Google Scholar
40 C. Turchi “Parabolic Trough Reference Plant for Cost Modelling with the Solar Advisor Model (SAM)”, Technical Report NREL/TP-550-47605, Golden, Colorado July 2010.
Google Scholar
41 C. Kost, T. Schlegel: “Studie Stromgestehungskosten Erneuerbare Energien Renewable Energy Policy Innovation“, Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg Dec. 2010.
Google Scholar
42 R. Pitz-Paal, J. Dersch, B. Milow: “European Concentrated Solar Thermal Road-Mapping (ECOSTAR): road map document” SES6-CT-2003-502578, 2005, http://www.promes.cnrs.fr/ACTIONS/Europeenes/downloads/ECOSTAR.Summary.pdf (accessed: March 9, 2012).
Google Scholar
43 A.T. Kearny: “Solar Thermal Electricity 2025”, ESTELA, June 2010, http://www.estelasolar.eu/fileadmin/ESTELAdocs/documents/Cost_Roadmap/2010-06_-_Solar_Thermal_Electricity_2025_-_ENG.pdf (accessed: March 9, 2012).
Google Scholar
44 M.K.H. Besenbruch, K.-H. Corkle: ”Thermochemical water splitting with solar thermal energy: final report”, General Atomics GA-A 16022, San Diego 1981.
Google Scholar
45 Solar Thermal Energy for Chemical Processes in M. Becker (ed.): Solar Thermal Energy Utilization, German Studies on Technology and Application, vol. 3, Springer, Berlin 1987.
Google Scholar
46 S. Möller, D. Kaucic, C. Sattler: “Hydrogen production by solar reforming of natural gas: A comparison study of two possible process configurations” J. Sol. Eng. 128 (2006) 16–23.
10.1115/1.2164447
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
47 M. Roeb, J.-P. Säck, P. Rietbrock et al, “Test operation of a 100 kW pilot plant for solar hydrogen production from water on a solar tower”, Sol. Energy 85 (2011) 634–644.
10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.014
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
48 S. Rodat, S. Abanades, G. Flamant: “Co-production of hydrogen and carbon black from solar thermal methane splitting in tubular reactor prototype”, Sol. Energy 85 (2011) 645–652.
10.1016/j.solener.2010.02.016
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
49 N. Siegel, T. Garino, E.N. Coker et al., “Implementation of Cerium Oxide Structures in Solar Fuel Production Systems”, SolarPACES 2010, Perpignan, France.
Google Scholar

General References

Specific References

51 V. Wittwer: “Transparent Insulation Materials and Their Application in Active and Passive Systems,” Int. J. Solar Energy 11 (1992) 117 – 134.
10.1080/01425919208909734
Google Scholar
52 K. Jahn, D. Christoffers, K. R. Schreitmüller: “Thermal Performance of a Transparently Insulated South Facade,” Proc. of the 3rd Eur. Conf. on Architecture, Florence 1993.
Google Scholar
53 E. Boy, S. Meinhardt: “A New Thermo – Optical Regulation System — Suited for Transparent Insulation?,” Proc. of the 2nd Int. Workshop on Transparent Insulation, Freiburg 1988.
Google Scholar
54 T. C. Steemers, C. den Ouden (eds.): “Daylighting, Atria, Cooling,” Proc. Building 2000 Workshops, Commission of the European Community, Brussels 1988.
Google Scholar
55 PROJEKT MONITOR, A Series of Case Studies Illustrating Passive Solar Architecture in the European Community, School of Architecture, University College Dublin, Richview, published monthly.
Google Scholar
56 D. van Hattem (ed.): Non Nuclear Energies, Workshop on Future Building Energy Modelling, Commission of the European Community, Brussels 1988.
Google Scholar
57 B. Stanzel, E. Hahne: “Comparison of Four Simulation Programs for the Passys Test Cell,” Tagungsber. Int. Sonnenforum 6th 1 (1988) 317 – 321.
Google Scholar
58 D. Christoffers, “Seasonal Shading of Vertical South Facades with Prismatic Panes,” Sol. Energ. 57 (1996) Nov., N. 5, 339 – 343.
10.1016/S0038-092X(96)00112-0
Web of Science® Google Scholar
59 D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, G. L. Pearson, J. Appl. Phys. 25 (1954) 676.
10.1063/1.1721711
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
60 P. D. Maycock, PV News 12 (1993) no. 2, Feb.
Google Scholar
61 P. D. Maycock, PV News 11 (1992) no. 8, Aug.
Google Scholar
62 H. W. Schock, F. Pfisterer: “Photovoltaics in Europe — Recent Developments” in R. Noufi (ed.): AIP Conf. Proc. 268, “Photovoltaic Advanced Research & Development Project”, Am. Inst. of Physics, New York 1992, p. 511.
Google Scholar
63 R. Curry (ed.), Photov. Insider's Rep. XI (1992) no. 8, Aug.
Google Scholar
64 L. M. Fraas et al., “Over 30 % Efficient Tandem Gallium Cell Assemblies for Use with Concentrated Sunlight,” Techn. Digest of the 5th Int. Photov. Sci. and Eng. Conf. (PVSEC-5), Kyoto, Japan 1990, p. 89.
Google Scholar
65 W. H. Bloss, W. Knaupp, F. Pfisterer, “Photovoltaic-Testanlage Widderstall,” VDI Ber. 851 (1991) 135 –149.
Google Scholar
66 W. Knaupp, “Power Rating of Photovoltaic Modules from Outdoor Measurements,” Conf. Rec. 22nd IEEE Photov. Spec. Conf., Las Vegas 1991, p. 848.
Google Scholar
67 S. Nann, Sol. Energy 45 (1990) 385.
10.1016/0038-092X(90)90160-E
Web of Science® Google Scholar
68 G. Chryssis: High Frequency Switching Power Supplies: Theory and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York 1984.
Google Scholar
69 L. Keating: “Computer Simulation and Expert Systems for Photovoltaic Applications,” Ph. D. Thesis, NMRC University College, Cork (IR) 1992.
Google Scholar
70 C. Blok, E. Terhorst: “SOMES — A Simulation …”, Technical Report, University of Utrecht, 1987.
Google Scholar
71 D. F. Menicucci, J. P. Fernandez: “User's Manual for PVFORM, a Photovoltaic System Simulation …”, Technical Report, SAND85–0376, Sandia Nat. Laboratories, Albuquerque 1988.
Google Scholar
72 S. McCarthy, L. Keating, G. T. Wrixon, “Development of ASHLING, a PV Plant Simulation Program”, Technical Report, NMRC Univ. College, Cork (IR) 1990.
Google Scholar
73 K. W. Stokes, Technical Report EPRI-AP-5229, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, 1987.
Google Scholar
74 G. Blaesser, K. Krebs: “Summary of PV Pilot Plant Monitoring Data 1984 – 1985,” Proc. 7th E.C. PV Solar Energy Conf., Sevilla 1986, D. Reidel, Dordrecht 1987, p. 84.
Google Scholar
75 Proc. Execut. Conf., Photov. Systems for Electric Utility Appl., Taormina, Italy, Dec. 1990 (OECD, Paris, 1992).
Google Scholar
76 U. Beyer et al.: “Photovoltaikanlage Kobern – Gondorf …,” Proc. 5 Nat. Symp. PV Solarenergie, Staffelstein 1990, p. 59.
Google Scholar
77 J. E. Hoffner et al., Proc. 1987 Ann. Meeting Am. Sol. En. Soc. (ASES), Portland, Oregon, 1987, p. 121.
Google Scholar
78 W. H. Bloss, F. Pfisterer, “Photovoltaische Systeme—Energiebilanz und CO2-Reduktionspotential”, VDI Ber. 942 (1992) 71–87.
CAS Google Scholar

General References

79 A. J. Bard, R. Memming, B. Miller, Pure & Appl. Chem. 63 (1991) 569 – 596.
10.1351/pac199163040569
Web of Science® Google Scholar
80 D. Meissner in D. Meissner (ed.): Solarzellen, Physikalische Grundlagen und Anwendungen in der Photovoltaik, Vieweg, Braunschweig 1993, pp. 137 – 150.
Google Scholar
81 R. Memming in E. Steckhan (ed.): Electrochemistry II, Topics in Current Chemistry, vol. 143, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1988, pp. 79 – 112.
10.1007/BFb0018072
Web of Science® Google Scholar
82 S. R. Morrison: Electrochemistry at Semiconductor and Oxidized Metal Electrodes, Plenum, New York 1980.
10.1007/978-1-4613-3144-5
Google Scholar
83 Y. V. Pleskov: Solar Energy Conversion, a Photoelectrochemical Approach, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1990.
10.1007/978-3-642-74958-2
Web of Science® Google Scholar
84 K. Rajeshwar, L. M. Peter, A. Fujishima, D. Meissner, M. Tomkiewicz: Photoelectrochemistry, Proceed. Vol. 97 – 20, The Electrochem. Soc., Inc., Pennington, NJ, 1997.
Google Scholar
85 H. Tsumbomura, H. Kobayashi, Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 18 (1993) 261 – 326.
10.1080/10408439308242562
Web of Science® Google Scholar
86 H. J. Lewerenz, H. Jungblut: Photovoltaik, Grundlagen und Anwendungen, Chapter 5, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1995.
Google Scholar
87 K. Rajeshwar, L. M. Peter, A. Fujishima, D. Meissner, T. Tomkiewich: “Photochemistry,” The Electrochemical Society Proceedings, vol. 97–20, Pennington, NJ 1997.
Google Scholar

Specific References

88 R. Memming, W. Gissler in Proceedings of the European Conference on Solar Cells, Luxembourg 1977.
Google Scholar
89 A. Fujishima, K. Honda, Nature 238 (1972) 37 – 38.
10.1038/238037a0
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
90 E. Bequerel, C. R. Des. Scéances Naturelles 9 (1939) 561.
Google Scholar
91 R. Williams, J. Chem. Phys. 32 (1960) 1505 – 1514.
10.1063/1.1730950
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
92 W. H. Brattain, G. C. B. Gobrecht, Bell Syst. Tech. J. 34 (1955) 129.
10.1002/j.1538-7305.1955.tb03766.x
Web of Science® Google Scholar
93 D. Meissner in T. N. Veziroglu (ed.): Hydrogen Energy Progress IX, vol. 1, M. C. I, Paris 1992, pp. 517 – 526.
Google Scholar
94 B. O'Regan, M. Grätzel, Nature 353 (1991) 737 – 740.
10.1038/353737a0
Google Scholar
95 K. Nakatani, S. Matsudaira, H. Tsubomura, J. Electrochem. Soc. 125 (1978) 406.
10.1149/1.2131461
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
96 A. Heller et al., J. Electrochem. Soc. 125 (1978) 1156.
10.1149/1.2131640
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
97 S. Licht, D. Peramunage, Nature 345 (1990) 330,
CAS Google Scholar
J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 (1992) L23 – L26, 15.
Google Scholar
98 S. Licht et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 46 (1985) 608.
10.1063/1.95556
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
99 K. C. Chang et al., Science 196 (1977) 1097.
10.1126/science.196.4294.1097
CAS PubMed Web of Science® Google Scholar
B. A. Parkinson, A. Heller, B. Miller, J. Electrochem. Soc. 126 (1979) 954.
10.1149/1.2129201
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
100 L. G. Casagrande, N. S. Lewis, S. M. Kelso, 170^th Electrochem. Soc. Meeting, San Diego 1986; Abstr. no. 607 (1986).
Google Scholar
101 A. Heller, B. Miller, F. Thiel, Appl. Phys. Lett. 38 (1981) 232.
10.1063/1.92307
Web of Science® Google Scholar
102 R. Tenne, A. Wold, Appl. Phys. Lett. 47 (1985) 707.
10.1063/1.96066
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
103 Y. Nakato, K. Ueda, H. Yano, H. Tsubomura, J. Phys. Chem. 92 (1988) 2316.
10.1021/j100319a043
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
104 H. Tsubomura, Y. Nakato, Nouv. J. de. Chimie 11 (1987) 167 – 171.
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
105 M. Rosenbluth, N. S. Lewis, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 108 (1986) 4689.
10.1021/ja00276a001
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
106 D. Cahen, Y. W. Chen, Appl. Phys. Lett. 45 (1984) 746.
10.1063/1.95384
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
107 H. Tributsch in M. Schiavello (ed.): New Trends and Applications of Photocatalysis and Photoelectro-chemistry for Environmental Problems, D. Reidel, Dordrecht 1988, p. 297.
CAS Google Scholar
108 D. Meissner, R. Memming, Electrochim. Acta 37 (1992) 799 – 809.
10.1016/0013-4686(92)85033-H
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
109 H. Gerischer, H. Tributsch, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 72 (1968) 437.
10.1002/bbpc.196800013
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
110 R. Memming in S. G. Davison (ed.): Progress in Surface Science, vol. 17, Pergamon, Oxford 1983, pp. 7 – 74.
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
111 B. A. Parkinson, M. T. Spitler, Electrochim. Acta 37 (1992) 943 – 948.
10.1016/0013-4686(92)85045-M
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
112 N. Matsumura, Y. Nomura, H. Tsubomura, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 50 (1977) 2533.
10.1246/bcsj.50.2533
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
113 C. Stalder, J. Augustynski, J. Electrochem. Soc. 126 (1979) 2007.
10.1149/1.2128844
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
114 J. Desilvestro et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 107 (1985) 2988 – 2990.
10.1021/ja00296a035
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
115 D. Bahnemann, D. Bockelmann, R. Goslich, Solar Energy Mat. 24 (1992) 564 – 583.
10.1016/0165-1633(91)90091-X
Web of Science® Google Scholar
116 E. Borgarello, J. Kiwi, E. Pelizzetti, M. Visca, M. Grätzel, Nature 289 (1981) 158.
10.1038/289158a0
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
K. Kalyanasundara, M. E. Borgarello, D. Duonghong, M. Grätzel, Angew. Chemie 93 (1981) 1012.
10.1002/ange.19810931117
Google Scholar
117 A. Harriman, G. Porter, P. Walters, J. Photochem. 19 (1982) 183 – 187.
10.1016/0047-2670(82)87018-4
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
D. Meissner, R. Memming, B. Kastening, D. Bahnemann, Chem. Phys. Lett. 127 (1986) 419 – 423.
10.1016/0009-2614(86)80583-8
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
118 R. Reineke in A. Winsel (ed.): “Elektrochemie in Energie- und Umwelttechnik”, Dechema Monogr. 124 (1991) 623 – 627.
Google Scholar
119 T. Inoue, T. Yamase, Chem. Lett. (1985) 869 – 872.
10.1246/cl.1985.869
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
120 O. Kaselev, J. M. Turner, J. Electrochem. Soc. 145 (1998) 3335 – 3339;
10.1149/1.1838808
Web of Science® Google Scholar
E. Rocheleau, E. L. Miller, A. Misra, Energy & Fuels 12 (1998) 3 – 10.
10.1021/ef9701347
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
121 J. R. White, F. R. F. Fan, A. J. Bard, J. Electrochem. Soc. 132 (1985) 544 – 550.
10.1149/1.2113884
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
122 F. Möllers, H. J. Tolle, R. Memming, J. Electrochem. Soc. 121 (1974) 1160.
10.1149/1.2402004
Web of Science® Google Scholar
123 Y. Nakato, H. Tsumomura, Electrochim. Acta 37 (1992) 789 – 907.
10.1016/0013-4686(92)85041-I
Web of Science® Google Scholar
124 A. Meier, I. Uhlendorf, D. Meissner, Proc. Symp. on Electrochemical Technology Applications in Electronics, The Electrochem. Soc., Washington 1993;
Google Scholar
B.D. Struck (ed.): IEA Program of Research and Development on the Production of Hydrogen from Water, Annual Progress Report 1993, KFA Jülich, 1993.
CAS Google Scholar
125 Y. Nakato, H. Tsubomura, Electrochim. Acta 37 (1992) 897 – 907.
10.1016/0013-4686(92)85041-I
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
126 N. S. Lewis, Appl. Phys. Lett. 45 (1984) 1095 – 1097.
10.1063/1.95405
Web of Science® Google Scholar
127 M. L. Rosenbluth, C. M. Lieber, N. S. Lewis, Appl. Phys. Lett. 45 (1984) 423 – 425.
10.1063/1.95244
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
128 H. Kobayashi, Y. Kogetsu, K. Ikezumi, Y. Nakato, J. Electroanal. Chem. 371 (1994) 53 – 58.
10.1016/0022-0728(93)03225-E
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
129 G. Hodes, Nature 285 (1980) 29 – 30.
10.1038/285029a0
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
130 B. A. Parkinson, A. Heller, B. Miller, Appl. Phys. Lett. 33 (1978) 521 – 523.
10.1063/1.90422
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
J. Electrochem. Soc. 126 (1979) 954 – 960.
10.1149/1.2129201
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
131 A. Heller, J. Lewerenz, B. Miller, Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chemie 84 (1980) 592 – 595.
10.1002/bbpc.19800840614
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
132 A. T. Howe, J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. (1983) 1407 – 1408.
10.1039/c39830001407
CAS Google Scholar
133 H. J. Lewerenz, H. Goslowsky, K. D. Husemann, S. Fiechter, Nature 321 (1986) 687.
10.1038/321687a0
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
134 G. Kline, K. Kam, D. Canfield, B. A. Parkinson, Solar Enrgy. Mater. 4 (1981) 301 – 308.
10.1016/0165-1633(81)90068-X
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
135 W. Gissler, R. Memming, Proceedings Europ. Conf. on Solar Cells, Luxembourg, 1972, pp. 425–435.
Google Scholar
136 G. Hodes, J. Manassen, D. Cahen, Nature 261 (1976) 403 – 404.
10.1038/261403a0
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
137 S. Licht, J. Manassen, J. Electrochem. Soc. 134 (1987) 1064 – 1070.
10.1149/1.2100617
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
138 S. Licht, G. Hodes, R. Tenne, J. Manassen, Nature 326 (1987) 863 – 863.
10.1038/326863a0
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
139 A. Meier, D. Meissner in J. H. Fendler, I. Dékány (eds.): Nanoparticles in Solids and Solutions, Kluwer, Dordrecht 1996, pp. 421 – 449.
10.1007/978-94-015-8771-6_20
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
140 A. Meier, D. Meissner, Electrochim. Acta 40 (1995) 1523 – 1535;
10.1016/0013-4686(95)00033-B
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
R. Hiessen, D. Meissner, J. Phys. Chem. 102 (1998) 6549 – 6557.
10.1021/jp9816420
Google Scholar
141 G. Porter, Nature 288 (1980) 320.
10.1038/288320a0
Web of Science® Google Scholar
142 W. Wettling, Phys. Bl. 53 (1997) 1197 – 1202.
10.1002/phbl.19970531208
CAS Google Scholar
143 D. Meissner, Photon 1997, März/April 24 – 27.
Google Scholar
144 A. Fujishima, L. A. Nagahara, K. Ajito, K. Hashimoto, Electrochim. Acta 39 (1994) 1229 – 1236.
10.1016/0013-4686(94)E0041-W
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
145 M. R. Hoffmann, S. T. Martin, W. Choi, D. W. Bahnemann, Chem. Rev. 95 (1995) 69 – 96.
10.1021/cr00033a004
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
146 H. Kiesch et al., Angew. Chem. 110 (1998) 3201 – 3203.
10.1002/(SICI)1521-3757(19981102)110:21<3201::AID-ANGE3201>3.0.CO;2-J
Google Scholar
147 E. S. Smotkin et al., J. Phys. Chem. 91 (1987) 6 – 8.
10.1021/j100285a003
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
148 D. Peramunage, S. Licht, Solar Energy 52 (1994) 197 – 204.
10.1016/0038-092X(94)90069-8
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar

General References

149 M. Kaltschmitt, A. Wiese (eds.): Erneuerbare Energien—Systemtechnik, Wirtschaftlichkeit, Umweltaspekte, 2nd ed., Springer Verlag, Berlin 1997.
Google Scholar
150 J. Nitsch et al.: Bedingungen und Folgen von Aufbau strategien für eine solare Wasserstoffwirtschaft. Untersuchung für die Enquete-Kommission “Technikfolgen-Abschätzung und -Bewertung,”Dt. Bundestages, Bonn, June 1990.
Google Scholar
151 G. Altner, H.-P. Dürr, G. Michelsen, J. Nitsch: Zukünftige Energiepolitik, Economica Verlag, Bonn 1995.
Google Scholar
152 M. Kaltschmitt, A. Wiese (eds.): Erneuerbare Energien – Systemtechnik, Wirtschaftlichkeit, Umweltaspekte, 2nd ed., Springer Verlag, Berlin 1997.
Google Scholar
153 J. Nitsch, J. Luther: Energieversorgung der Zukunft. Rationelle Anwendung und erneuerbare Quellen, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1990.
10.1007/978-3-642-93446-9
Google Scholar
154 H. G. Brauch (ed.): Energiepolitik – Handlungskonzepte zu erneuerbaren Energien und zur rationellen Energienutzung, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1997.
Google Scholar
155 T. B. Johansson, H. Kelly, A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams (eds.): Renewable Energy – Sources for Fuels and Electricity, Island Press, Washington DC, 1993.
Google Scholar
156 Umweltbundesamt: Nachhaltiges Deutschland — Wege zu einer dauerhaft-umweltgerechten Entwicklung, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1997.
Google Scholar

General References

157 Enquete Kommission “Schutz der Erdatmosphäre” des Dt. Bundestages (ed.): Energie, vol. 3 (in two volumes), Economica-Verlag, Bonn 1995.
Google Scholar
158 F. Staiß: Photovoltaik — Technik, Potentiale und Perspektiven der solaren Stromerzeugung, Vieweg Verlagsgesellschaft, Braunschweig – Wiesbaden 1996.
Web of Science® Google Scholar
159 J. Nitsch, O. Langniß: Kosten und Märkte regenerativer Energieanlagen in VDI-Bericht 1361, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1997, p. 3 – 28.
Google Scholar
160 F. Trieb, B. Milow, J. Nitsch: “Einführung solarthermischer Kraftwerke auf den Weltenergiemarkt,” Energiewirtschaftliche Tagesfragen 48 (1998) 6, 392 – 397.
Google Scholar
161 H. Klaiß, F. Staiß (eds.): Solarthermische Kraftwerke für den Mittelmeerraum, vol 1+2, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1992.
Google Scholar
162 DIW Berlin, ISI Karlsruhe: Kostenaspekte erneuerbarer Energiequellen in der BRD und auf den Exportmärkten, BMFT, Berlin Feb. 1991.
CAS Google Scholar
163 M. Geyer, H. Klaiß: “194 MW Solarstrom mit Rinnenkollektoren,” Brennst. Wärme Kraft 41 (1989) no. 6, 288 – 295.
CAS Web of Science® Google Scholar
164 G. Cohen, D. W. Kearney, R. G. Cable: Recent Improvements and Performance Experience at the Kramer Junction SEGS Plants in VDI-Bericht 1200, Anhang, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1995.
Google Scholar
165 Enquete-Kommission Vorsorge zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre des Dt. Bundestages (ed.): Energie und Klima, vol. 7, Energieszenarien, Economica Verlag, Bonn, Müller, Karlsruhe 1990.
Google Scholar
166 P.-M. Nast: Solarkollektoren und solare Nahwärmesysteme in Enquete-Kommission Vorsorge, zum Schutz der Erdatmosphäre, Dt. Bundestages (ed.): “Erneuerbare Energien,” Energie und Klima, vol. 3, Economica Verl., Bonn; Müller, Karlsruhe 1990.
Google Scholar
167 O. Langniß, J. Luther, J. Nitsch, E. Wiemken: Strategien für eine nachhaltige Energieversorgung – ein solares Langfristszenario für Deutschland, DLR, Stuttgart, FhG, Freiburg, October 1997.
Web of Science® Google Scholar
168 O. Hohmeyer: Soziale Kosten des Energieverbrauchs, 2nd ed., Springer Verlag, Berlin 1989.
10.1007/978-3-662-09952-0
Web of Science® Google Scholar

Citing Literature

Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry

Browse other articles of this reference work:

Solar Technology

View previous versions

Solar Technology

Abstract

References

General References

Specific References

General References

Specific References

General References

General References

Citing Literature

References

Information

About Wiley Online Library

Help & Support

Opportunities

Connect with Wiley

Solar Technology

View previous versions

Solar Technology

Abstract

References

General References

Specific References

General References

Specific References

General References

General References

Citing Literature

References

Related

Information