Chapter 8
Botulinum toxin: Historical perspective and potential new indications
Joseph Jankovic MD,
Mitchell F. Brin MD,
Corresponding Author
Joseph Jankovic MD
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, 6501 Fannin, Suite 1801, Houston, TX 77030Search for more papers by this authorMitchell F. Brin MD
Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY
Search for more papers by this authorJoseph Jankovic MD,
Mitchell F. Brin MD,
Corresponding Author
Joseph Jankovic MD
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, 6501 Fannin, Suite 1801, Houston, TX 77030Search for more papers by this authorMitchell F. Brin MD
Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY
Search for more papers by this authorFirst published: 07 December 1998
Citations: 130
Abstract
Botulinum toxin (BTX), a purified form of the neurotoxin responsible for botulism, is used worldwide for the treatment of abnormal muscle contractions. The ability of BTX to block acetylcholine release in a long-lasting but reversible fashion with few side effects has made it an important tool in a wide variety of neuromuscular disorders, including the dystonias, tremor, tics, and spasticity. There are seven antigenically distinct toxins. BTX-A has been in clinical use for almost two decades, with an outstanding efficacy and safety profile. Clinical effects are often seen within 1 week of injection, and benefits typically last from 3-6 months. Patient selection and the proper choice of dose and administration site are the most important determinants of a favorable response to BTX treatment. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. Inc. Spasticity: Etiology, Evaluation, Management, and the Role of Botulinum Toxin Type A, MF Brin, editor, Muscle Nerve 1997; 20(suppl 6):S129-S145.
Bibliography
- 1 AAO Statement: Botulinum toxin therapy of eye muscle disorders. Safety and effectiveness. American Academy of Ophthalmology Ophthalmology 1989; Part 2 (Sept): 37–41.
- 2 Albanese A, Bentivoglio AR, Colosimo C, Galardi G, Maderna L, Tonali P: Pretarsal injections of botu-linum toxin improve blepharospasm in previously unresponsive patients [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 693–694.
- 3 Almasy L, et al: Idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome 8 in two Mennonite families. Ann Neurol 1997; (In Press).
- 3a Almasy L, Bressman S, de Leon D, Risch N. Ethnic variation in the clinical expression of idiopathic torsion dystonia. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 715–721.
- 4 American Academy of Otolaryngology: Position statement on the clinical usefulness of botulinum toxin in the treatment of spasmodic dysphonia. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg Bull 1990; 9: 8.
- 5 American Academy of Neurology: Assessment: the clinical usefulness of botulinum toxin A in treating neurologic disorders. Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 1990; 40: 1332–1336.
- 6 Aramideh M, De Visser BWO, Brans JWM, Koelman JHTM, Speelman JD: Pretarsal application of botulinum toxin for treatment of blepharospasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 59: 309–311.
- 7 Aramideh M, Devisser BWO, Koelman JHTM, Speelman JD: Motor persistence of orbicularis oculi muscle in eyelid opening disorders. Neurology 1995; 45: 897–902.
- 8 Barker FG, Jannetta PJ, Bissonette DJ, Shields PT, Larkins MV, Jho HD: Microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm. J Neurosurg 1995; 82: 201–210.
- 9 Berardelli A, Mercuri B, Priori A: Botulinum toxin for facial-oral-mandibular spasms and bruxism, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 361–367.
- 9a Bertolasi L, Priori A, Tomelleri G, et al. Botulinum toxin treatment of muscle cramps: a clinical and neurophysiological study. Ann Neurol 1997; 41: 181–186.
- 10 Blackie JD, Lees AJ: Botulinum toxin treatment in spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 640–643.
- 11 Blitzer A, Binder WJ, Aviv JE, Keen MS, Brin MF: The management of hyperfunctional facial lines with botulinum toxin. A collaborative study of 210 injection sites in 162 patients. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997; 123 (4): 389–392
- 12 Blitzer A, Brin M: Laryngeal dystonia: a series with botulinum toxin therapy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1991; 100: 85–89.
- 13 Blitzer A, Brin MF, Greene PE, Fahn S: Botulinum toxin injection for the treatment of oromandibular dystonia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 1989; 98: 93–97.
- 14 Blitzer A, Brin MF, Stewart C, Aviv JE, Fahn S: Abductor laryngeal dystonia: a series treated with botulinum toxin. Laryngoscope 1992; 102: 163–167.
- 15 Borodic GE, Joseph M, Fay L, Cozzolino D, Ferrante RJ: Botulinum A toxin for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis: dysphagia and regional toxin spread. Head Neck 1990; 12: 392–399.
- 16
Brin MF, and
the Spasticity Study Group:
Dosing, administration, and a treatment algorithm for use of botulinum toxin A for adult-onset spasticity.
Muscle Nerve
1997;
20
(suppl 6):
S208–S220
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(1997)6+<208::AID-MUS15>3.0.CO;2-1 Google Scholar
- 17 Brin MF, Blitzer A, Herman S, Stewart C: Orofaciomandibular and Lingual Dystonia (Meige Syndrome), in P Moore (ed): Handbook of Botulinum Toxin Treatment London, Blackwell Science, 1995, pp 151–163.
- 18 Brin MF, Blitzer A, Stewart C: Vocal Tremor, in LJ Findley, WC Koller (eds): Handbook of Tremor Disorders. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1995, pp 495–520.
- 19 Brin MF, Blitzer A, Stewart C, Fahn S: Treatment of Spasmodic Dysphonia (Laryngeal Dystonia) with Local Injections of Botulinum Toxin: Review and Technical Aspects, in A Blitzer, MF Brin CT Sasaki, S Fahn, KS Harris (eds): Neurological Disorders of the Larynx. New York, Thieme, 1992, pp 214–228.
- 20 Brin MF, Fahn S, Moskowitz C, Friedman A, Shale HM, Greene PE, Blitzer A, List T, Lange D, Lovelace RE: Localized injections of botulinum toxin for the treatment of focal dystonia and hemifacial spasm. Mov Disord 1987; 2: 237–254.
- 20a Brin MF, Fahn S, Moskowitz C, Friedman A, Shale HM, Greene PE, Blitzer A, List T, Lange D, Lovelace RE, McMahon D: Localized injections of botulinum toxin for the treatment of focal dystonia and hemifacial spasm. Adv Neurol 1988; 50: 599 608.
- 21 Brin MF, Stewart C, Blitzer A, Diamond B: Laryngeal botulinum toxin injections for disabling stuttering in adults. Neurology 1994; 44: 2262–2266.
- 22 Brin MF, Vapnek JM: Treatment of vaginismus with botulinum toxin injections [letter]. Lancet 1997; 349: 252–253.
- 23 Buchman AS, Comella CL, Stebbins GT, Weinstein SL: Determining a dose effect curve for botulinum toxin in the sternocleidomastoid muscle in cervical dystonia. Clin Neuropharmacol 1994; 17: 188–195.
- 24 Burgen ASV, Dickens F, Zatman LJ: The action of botulinum toxin on the neuromuscular junction. J Physiol 1949; 109: 10–24.
- 25 Burke RE, Fahn S, Jankovic J, Marsden CD, Lang AE, Gollomp S, Ilson J: Tardive dystonia: late onset and persistent dystonia caused by antipsychotic drugs. Neurology 1982; 32: 1335–1346.
- 25a Burke RE, Brin MF, Fahn S, Bressman SB, Moskovitz C: Analysis of the clinical course of non-Jewish, automosomal dominant torsion dystonia. Mov Disord 1986; 1: 163–178.
- 26 Carruthers A, Carruthers JDA: Botulinum Toxin in the Treatment of Glabellar Frown Lines and Other Facial Wrinkles, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 577–595.
- 27 Centers for Disease Control: Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians, and Laboratory Workers. Atlanta, Centers for Disease Control, 1979.
- 28 Cohen LG, Hallett M, Geller BD, Hochberg F: Treatment of focal dystonias of the hand with botulinum toxin injections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52: 355–363.
- 29 Cole R, Hallett M, Cohen LG: Double-blind trial of botulinum toxin for treatment of focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 466–471.
- 30 Comella CL, Buchman AS, Tanner CM, Brown Toms NC, Goetz CG: Botulinum toxin injection for spasmodic torticollis: increased magnitude of benefit with electromyographic assistance. Neurology 1992; 42: 878–882.
- 31 Comella CL, Tanner CM, DeFoor Hill L, Smith C: Dysphagia after botulinum toxin injections for spasmodic torticollis: clinical and radiologic findings. Neurology 1992; 42: 1307–1310.
- 32
DasGupta BR:
Botulinum and Tetanus Neurotoxins: Neurotransmission and Biomedical Aspects.
New York,
Plenum,
1993.
10.1007/978-1-4757-9542-4 Google Scholar
- 33 Davis D, Jabbari B: Significant improvement of stiff person syndrome after paraspinal injection of botulinum toxin A. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 371–373.
- 34 Davis LE: Botulinum toxin: from poison to medicine. West J Med 1993; 158: 25–29.
- 35 Demirkiran M, Jankovic J: Paroxysmal dyskinesias: clinical features and classification. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 571–579.
- 36 Deuschl G, Heinen F, Kleedorfer B, Wagner M, Lucking CH, Poewe W: Clinical and polymyo-graphic investigation of spasmodic torticollis. J Neurol 1992; 239: 9–15.
- 37 Digre K, Corbett JJ: Hemifacial spasm: differential diagnosis, mechanism, and treatment. Adv Neurol 1988; 49: 151–176.
- 37a Drobik C, Laskawi R. Frey's syndrome: treatment with botulinum toxin. Acta Otolaryngol 1995; 115; 459–461.
- 38 Dubinsky RM, Gray CS, Vetere Overfield B, Koller WC: Electromyographic guidance of botulinum toxin treatment in cervical dystonia. Clin Neuropharm 1991; 14: 262–267.
- 39 Dykstra DD: Effects of Botulinum Toxin A on Detrusor-Sphincter Dyssynergia in Spinal Cord Injury Patients, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 535–541.
- 40 Dykstra DD, Sidi AA: Treatment of detrusorsphincter dyssynergia with botulinum A toxin: a double-blind study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990; 71: 24–26.
- 41 Eleopra R, Tugnoli V, Rossetto O, Montecucco C, De Grandis D: Botulinum neurotoxin serotype C: a novel effective botulinum toxin therapy in human. Neurosci Lett 1997; 224: 91–94.
- 41a Eldridge R, Gottlieb R: The primary hereditary dystonias: genetic classification of 768 families and revised estimate of gene frequency, autosomal recessive form, and selective bibliography Adv Neurol 1976; 14: 457–474.
- 42 Elston JS: Botulinum Toxin for Blepharospasm, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 191–197.
- 42a Fahn S, List T, Moskowitz CB, Brin MF, Bressman S, Burke R, Scott A: Double-blind controlled study of botulinum toxin for blepharospasm, Neurology 1985; 35 (Suppl 1): 271 (Abstract).
- 43 Ford CN, Bless DM, Lowery JD: Indirect laryngoscopic approach for injection of botulinum toxin in spasmodic dysphonia. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1990; 103: 752–758.
- 44 Garcia A, Fulton JE, Jr. Cosmetic denervation of the muscles of facial expression with botulinum toxin: a dose response study. Dermatol Surg 1996; 22: 39–43.
- 45 Garner CG, Straube A, Witt TN, Gasser T, Oertel WH: Time course of distant effects of local injections of botulinum toxin. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 33–37.
- 46 Gelb DJ, Yoshimura DM, Olney RK, Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ: Change in pattern of muscle activity following botulinum toxin injections for torticollis. Ann Neurol 1991; 29: 370–376.
- 47 Geller BD, Hallett M, Ravits J: Botulinum toxin therapy in hemifacial spasm: clinical and electrophysiologic studies. Muscle Nerve 1989; 12: 716–722.
- 48 Girlanda P, Quartarone A, Sinicropi S, Nicolosi C, Messina C: Unilateral injection of botulinum toxin in blepharospasm: single fiber electromyography and blink reflex study. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 27–31.
- 49 Grandas F, Elston J, Quinn N, Marsden CD: Blepharospasm: a review of 264 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 767–772.
- 50 Grazko MA, Polo KB, Jabbari B: Botulinum toxin A for spasticity, muscle spasms, and rigidity. Neurology 1995; 45: 712–717.
- 51 Greene P, Kang U, Fahn S, Brin M, Moskowitz C, Flaster E: Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1990; 40: 1213–1218.
- 52 Greene PE, Fahn S: Use of botulinum toxin type F injections to treat torticollis in patients with immunity to botulinum toxin type A. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 479–483.
- 53 Hallan RI, Williams NS, Melling J, Waldron DJ, Womack NR, Morrison JF: Treatment of anismus in intractable constipation with botulinum A toxin. Lancet 1988; 2: 714–717.
- 54 Hesse S, Lucke D, Malezic M, Bertelt C, Friedrich H: Botulinum toxin treatment for lower limb extensor spasticity in chronic hemiparetic patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 1321–1324.
- 55 Jankovic J: Botulinum toxin in the treatment of dystonia and other disorders, in SH Appel (ed): Current Neurology. Mosby Year Book, Vol 14 1994, pp 207–209 (Abstract).
- 56 Jankovic J: Botulinum toxin in the treatment of dystonic tics. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 347–349.
- 57 Jankovic J: Apraxia of lid opening [letter; comment]. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 686–687.
- 58 Jankovic J: Pretarsal injection of botulinum toxin for blepharospasm and apraxia of eyelid opening [letter]. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 704.
- 59 Jankovic J, Brin M: Therapeutic uses of botulinum toxin. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1186–1194.
- 60 Jankovic J, Brin MF, Comella C: Handbook of Botulinum Toxin Treatment for Cervical Dystonia. New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1994.
- 60a Jankovic J, Cardoso F, Grossman RG, Hamilton WJ: Outcome after stereotactic thalamotomy for parkinsonian, essential, and other types of tremor. Neurosurgery 1995; 37: 680–686.; discussion 686–687.
- 61 Jankovic J, Fahn S: Dystonic syndromes, in J Jankovic, E Tolosa (eds): Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1993, pp 337–374.
- 62 J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994.
- 63 Jankovic J, Leder S, Warner D, Schwartz K: Cervical dystonia: clinical findings and associated movement disorders. Neurology 1991; 41: 1088–1091.
- 64 Jankovic J, Orman J: Botulinum A toxin for cranial cervical dystonia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 1987; 37: 616–623.
- 65 Jankovic J, Schwartz K: Botulinum toxin injections for cervical dystonia. Neurology 1990; 40: 277–280.
- 66 Jankovic J, Schwartz K: Botulinum toxin treatment of tremors. Neurology 1991; 41: 1185–1188.
- 67 Jankovic J, Schwartz K: Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology 1995; 45: 1743–1746.
- 68 Jankovic J, Schwartz K, Clemence W, Aswad A, Mordaunt J: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate botulinum toxin type A in essential hand tremor. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 250–256.
- 69 Jankovic J, Schwartz K, Donovan DT: Botulinum toxin treatment of cranial cervical dystonia, spasmodic dysphonia, other focal dystonias and hemifacial spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 633–639.
- 70 Jankovic J, Schwartz KS: Clinical correlates of response to botulinum toxin injections. Arch Neurol 1991; 48: 1253–1256.
- 71 Jankovic J, Schwartz KS: The use of botulinum toxin in the treatment of hand dystonias. J Hand Surg [Am] 1993; 30: 295–296.
- 72 Jankovic J, Schwartz KS: Longitudinal experience with botulinum toxin injections for treatment of blepharospasm and cervical dystonia. Neurology 1993; 43: 834–836.
- 73 Jedynak CP, Bonnet AM, Agid Y: Tremor and idiopathic dystonia. Mov Disord 1991; 6: 230–236.
- 74 Karp BI, Cole RA, Cohen LG, Grill S, Lou JS, Hallett M: Long term botulinum toxin treatment of focal hand dystonia. Neurology 1994; 44: 70–76.
- 75 Kennedy RH, Bartley GB, Flanagan JC, Waller RR: Treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin. Mayo Clin Proc 1989; 64: 1085–1090.
- 76 Kwiatkowski DJ, Ozelius L, Kramer PL, Perman S, Schuback DE, Gusella JF, Fahn S, Breakefield XO: Torsion dystonia genes in two populations confined to a small region on chromosome 9q32-34. Am J Hum Genet 1991; 49: 366–371.
- 77 Lepore V, Defazio G, Acquistapace D, Melpignano C, Pomes L, Lamberti P, Livrea P, Ferrari E: Botulinum A toxin for the so-called apraxia of lid opening. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 525–526.
- 78 Leube B, Rudnicki D, Ratzlaff T, Kessler KR, Benecke R, Auburger G: Idiopathic torsion dystonia: assignment of a gene to chromosome 18p in a german family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. Hum Mol Genet 1996; 5: 1673–1677.
- 79 Lew MF, et al.: Botulinum toxin type B (BotB): a double-blind, placebo-controlled, safety and efficacy study in cervical dystonia. Neurology 1997; (In Press).
- 80 Lorentz IT, Subramaniam SS, Yiannikas C: Treatment of idiopathic spasmodic torticollis with botulinum toxin A: a double-blind study on twenty-three patients. Mov Disord 1991; 6: 145–150.
- 81 Lou JS, Jankovic J: Essential tremor: clinical correlates in 350 patients. Neurology 1991; 41: 234–238.
- 82 Ludlow CL: Treatment of speech and voice disorders with botulinum toxin [clinical conference]. JAMA 1990; 264: 2671–2675.
- 83 Ludlow CL, Hallett M, Rhew K, Cole R, Shimizu T, Sakaguchi G, Bagley JA, Schulz GM, Yin SG, Koda J: Therapeutic use of type F botulinum toxin [letter]. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 349–350.
- 84 Marsden CD: Peripheral Movement Disorders, in CD Marsden, S Fahn (eds): Movement Disorders 3. Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann, 1994, pp 406–417.
- 85 Merello M, Garcia H, Nogues M, Leiguarda R: Masticatory muscle spasm in a non-Japanese patient with Satoyoshi syndrome successfully treated with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 104–105.
- 86
Mezaki T,
Kaji R,
Hamano T,
Nagamine T,
Shibasaki H,
Shimizu T,
Kimura J:
Optimisation of botulinum treatment for cervical and axial dystonias: experience with a Japanese type A toxin.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry
1994;
57:
1535–1537.
10.1136/jnnp.57.12.1535 Google Scholar
- 87 Mezaki T, Kaji R, Kohara N, Fujii H, Katayama M, Shimizu T, Kimura J, Brin MF: Comparison of therapeutic efficacies of type A and F botulinum toxins for blepharospasm: a double-blind, controlled study. Neurology 1995; 45: 506–508.
- 88 Montecucco C, Schiavo G, Tugnoli V, De Grandis D: Botulinum neurotoxins: mechanism of action and therapeutic applications. Mol Med Today 1996; 2: 418–424.
- 89 C Montecucco (ed): Clostridial Neurotoxins: The Molecular Mechanisms of Tetanus and Botulism. Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1995.
- 90 P Moore (ed): Handbook of Botulinum Toxin Treatment. Oxford, Blackwell Science, 1995.
- 90a Morr HH, Keizer SB, Os JJ: Treatment of chronic tennis elbow with botulinum toxin. Lancet 1997; 349: 252.
- 91 Moyer E, Setler PE: Botulinum toxin type B: experimental and clinical experience, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 71–85.
- 91a Naumann M, Flachenecher P, Brocker E, et al.: Botulinum toxin for palmar hyperhydrosis. Lancet 1997; 349: 252.
- 92 Nygaard TG, Marsden CD, Fahn S: Dopa-responsive dystonia: long-term treatment response and prognosis. Neurology 1991; 41: 174–181.
- 92a Ozelius LJ, et al.: The early onset torsion dystonia gene (DYT1) encodes an ATP-binding protein. Nat Genet 1997; 17: 40–48.
- 93 Ozelius LJ, Kramer PL, de Leon D, Risch N, Bressman SB, Schuback DE, Brin MF, Kwiatkowski DJ, Burke RE, Gusella JF: Strong allelic association between the torsion dystonia gene (DYT1) and loci on chromosome 9q34 in Ashkenazi Jews. Am J Hum Genet 1992; 50: 619–628.
- 94 Pacchetti C, Albani G, Martignoni E, Godi L, Alfonsi E, Nappi G: “Off” painful dystonia in Parkinson's disease treated with botulinum toxin. Mov Disord 1995; 10: 333–336.
- 95 Pahwa R, Busenbark K, Swansonhyland EF Dubinsky RM, Hubble JP, Gray C, Koller WC: Botulinum toxin treatment of essential head tremor. Neurology 1995; 45: 822–824.
- 96 Pasricha PJ, Kalloo AN: Botulinum Toxin in the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders, in J Jankovic, M Hallett (eds): Therapy with Botulinum Toxin. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1994, pp 543–555.
- 97 Pasricha PJ, Ravich WJ, Hendrix TR, Sostre S, Jones B, Kalloo AN: Intrantisphincteric botulinum toxin for the treatment of achalsia. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 774–778.
- 97a Piccione F, Mancini E, Duane D. Variability of the immunologic and clinical response in dystonic patients immunoresistant to botulinum toxin injections. Mov Disord 1997. (in press).
- 98 Poewe W, Schelosky L, Kleedorfer B, Heinen F Wagner M, Deuschl G: Treatment of spasmodic torticollis with local injections of botulinum toxin. One year follow-up in 37 patients. J Neurol 1992; 239: 21–25.
- 99 Polo KB, Jabbari B: Botulinum toxin A improves the rigidity of progressive supranuclear palsy Ann Neurol 1994; 35: 237–239.
- 100 Priori A, Berardelli A, Mercuri B, Manfredi M: Physiological effects produced by botulinum toxin treatment of upper limb dystonia: changes in reciprocal inhibition between forearm muscles. Brain 1995; 118: 801–807.
- 101 Rivest J, Lees AJ, Marsden CD: Writer's cramp: treatment with botulinum toxin injections. Mov Disord 1990; 6: 55–59.
- 102
Russman BS,
Tilton A,
Gormley ME, Jr:
Cerebral palsy: a rational approach to a treatment protocol, and the role of botulinum toxin in treatment.
Muscle Nerve
1997;
20
(suppl 6):
S181–S194
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(1997)6+<181::AID-MUS13>3.0.CO;2-9 Google Scholar
- 103 Saeed SR, Brookes GB: The use of Clostridium botulinum toxin in palatal myoclonus. A preliminary report. J Laryngol Otol 1993; 107: 208–210.
- 104 Salloway S, Stewart CF, Israeli L, Morales X, Rasmussen S, Blitzer A, Brin MF: Botulinum toxin for refractory vocal tics. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 746–748.
- 104a Sankhla C, Jankovic J, Duane D: Variability of the immunologic and clinical response in dystonic patients immunoresistant to botulinum toxin injections. Mov Disord 1997: (In press).
- 104b Schnider P, Binder M, Kittler H, et al: Uses of botulinum toxin. Lancet 1997; 349: 953.
- 104c Schulze-Bonhage A, Schroder M, Ferbert A: Botulinum toxin in the gustatory sweating. J Neurol 1996; 243: 143–146.
- 104d Scott AB, Rosenbaum A, Collins CC: Pharmacologic weakening of extraocular muscles. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1973; 12: 924–927.
- 104e Scott AB: Botulinum toxin injection of eye muscles to correct strabismus. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1981; 79: 734–770.
- 105 Scott BL, Jankovic J, Donovan DT: Botulinum toxin injection into vocal cord in the treatment of malignant coprolalia associated with Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 431–433.
- 106 Sheean GL, Lees AJ: Botulinum toxin F in the treatment of torticollis clinically resistant to botulinum toxin A. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 59: 601–607.
- 107 Sheean GL, Murray NM, Marsden CD: Pain and remote weakness in limbs injected with botulinum toxin A for writer's cramp. Lancet 1995; 346: 154–156.
- 108
Simpson DM:
Clinical trials of botulinum toxin in the treatment of spasticity.
Muscle Nerve
1997;
20
(suppl 6):
S169–S175
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(1997)6+<169::AID-MUS11>3.0.CO;2-1 Google Scholar
- 109 LL Simpson (ed): Botulinum Toxin and Neurotoxin. San Diego, Academic Press, 1989.
- 110 Spinella GM, Sheridan PH: Research opportunities in dystonia: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke workshop summary. Neurology 1994; 44: 1177–1179.
- 111 Tanaka H, Endo K, Tsuji S, Nygaard TG, Weeks DE, Nomura Y, Segawa M: The gene for hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation maps to chromosome 14q. Ann Neurol 1995; 37: 405–408.
- 112 Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of AAN: Training guidelines for the use of botulinum toxin for the treatment of neurologic disorders. Neurology 1994; 44: 2401–2403.
- 113 Trosch RM, Pullman SL: Botulinum toxin A injections for the treatment of hand tremors. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 601–609.
- 114 Truong DD, Rontal M, Rolnick M, Aronson AE, Mistura K: Double-blind controlled study of botulinum toxin in adductor spasmodic dysphonia. Laryngoscope 1991; 101: 630–634.
- 115 Tsui JKC, Bhatt M, Calne S, Calne DB: Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp: a double-blind study. Neurology 1993; 43: 183–185.
- 115a Tsui JK, Eisen A, Stoessl AJ, Calne S, Calne DB: Double-blind study of botulinum toxin in spasmodic torticollis. Lancet 1986; 2: 245–247.
- 116 Tsui JKC, Hayward M, Mak EKM, Schulzer M: Botulinum toxin type B in the treatment of cervical dystonia: a pilot study. Neurology 1995; 45: 2109–2110.
- 117
van Ermengem E:
Classics in infectious diseases. A new anaerobic bacillus and its relation to botulism. E. van Ermengem. Originally published as “Ueber einen neuen anaeroben Bacillus und seine Beziehungen zum Botulismus”
in Zeitschrift fur Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten,
1897;
26:
1–56.
10.1007/BF02220526 Google ScholarRev Infect Dis 1979; 1: 701–719.
- 118 Van Zandijcke M, Marchau MMB: Treatment of bruxism with botulinum toxin injections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 533–535.
- 118a Varney SM, Demetroulakos JL, Fletecher MH, et al: Palatal myoclonus: treatment with Clostridium botulinum toxin injections. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1996; 114: 317–320.
- 119 Vieregge P Kompf D: Brachial plexopathy after botulinum toxin administration for cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 1338–1339.
- 120 Yoshimura DM, Aminoff MJ, Olney RK: Botulinum toxin therapy for limb dystonias. Neurology 1992; 42: 627–630.
